tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-54583665337322042392024-03-05T20:49:03.695-08:00anto paende blogspiamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.comBlogger12125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5458366533732204239.post-19634189405614416422012-02-13T06:17:00.001-08:002012-02-13T06:17:41.614-08:00TURBIN FRANCIS<link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_oledata.mso" rel="OLE-Object-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]>
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</m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac><br />
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span><span>G.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span>PRINSIP KERJA TURBIN FRANCIS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>Turbin francis bekerja dengan memakai proses
tekanan lebih. Pada waktu air masuk ke roda jalan, sebagian dari enrgi tinggi
jatuh telah bekerja di dalam suddu pengarah diubah sebagai kecepatan air masuk.
Sisa energi tinggi jatuh dimamfaatkan dalam sudu jalan, dengan adanya pipa isap
memungkinkan energi tinggi jatuh bekerja di sudu jalan dengan semaksimum
mungkin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>Turbin yang dikelilingi dengan sudu pengarah
semuanya terbenam dalm air. Air yang masuk kedalam turbin dialirkan melalui
pengisian air dari atas turbin (schact) atau melalui sebuah rumah yang
berbentuk spiral (rumah keong). Semua roda jalan selalu bekerja. Daya yang
dihasilkan turbin diatur dengan cara mengubah posisi pembukaan sudu pengarah.
Pembukaan sudu pengarah dapat dilakuakan dengan tangan atau dengan pengatur
dari oli tekan(gobernor tekanan oli), dengan demikian kapasitas air yang masuk
ke dalam roda turbin bisa diperbesar atau diperkecil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Pada sisi sebelah luar roda jalan terdapat tekanan
kerendahan (kurang dari 1 atmosfir) dan kecepatan aliran yang tinggi. Di dalam
pipa isap kecepatan alirannya akan berkurang dan tekanannya akan kembali naik
sehingga air bisa dialirkan keluar lewat saluran air di bawah dengan tekanan
seperti keadaan sekitarnya. Pipa isap pada turbin ini mempunyai fungsi mengubah
energi kecepatan menjadi energi tekan.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span><span>H.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span>KLASIFIKASI TURBIN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Berdasarkan perubahan momentum<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Impuls<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin impuls disebut juga dengan turbin air
tekanan sama karena tekanan air yang keluar dari nozel tekanannya sama dengan
tekanan atmosfir sekitarnya. Sehingga energi tempat dan energi tekanan yang
dimiliki oleh aliran air dirubah semuanya menjadi energi kecepatan. Contoh dari
turbin impuls ini adalah turbin pelton, turbin crossflow dan lain–lain. <i>(Fritz Dietzel, 1988 : 18)<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
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<span>Gambar 1. Instalasi Turbin Impuls<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc"><span lang="IN" style="color: #0000cc;">http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Adapun yang termasuk <i>turbin</i> impuls diantaranya :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 89.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Pelton<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin pelton
merupakan turbin impuls. Turbin Pelton terdiri dari satu set sudu jalan yang
diputar oleh pancaran air yang disemprotkan dari<span> </span>satu atau lebih alat yang disebut nozzle.
Turbin Pelton adalah salah satu dari jenis turbin air yang paling efisien.
Turbin Pelton adalah turbin yang cocok digunakan untuk head tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span>Gambar 2. Turbin Pelton dengan Banyak Nozzle<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc"><span lang="IN" style="color: #0000cc;">http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc</span></a></span></div>
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<span>Gambar 3. Runner Turbin Pelton<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc"><span lang="IN" style="color: #0000cc;">http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Bentuk sudu turbin
terdiri dari dua bagian yang simetris.<span>
</span>Sudu dibentuk<span> </span>sedemikian sehingga
pancaran air akan mengenai tengah–tengah sudu dan pancaran air tersebut akan
berbelok ke kedua arah sehinga bisa membalikkan pancaran air dengan baik dan
membebaskan sudu dari gaya-gaya samping. Untuk turbin dengan daya yang besar,
sistem penyemprotan airnya dibagi lewat beberapa nozzle. Dengan demikian
diameter pancaran air bisa diperkecil dan ember sudu lebih kecil. Turbin Pelton
untuk pembangkit skala besar membutuhkan <i>head</i>
lebih kurang 150 m tetapi untuk skala <i>mikro
head</i> 20 m sudah mencukupi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Turgo<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin Turgo dapat
beroperasi pada head 30 s/d 300 m. Seperti turbin pelton turbin turgo merupakan
turbin impuls, tetapi sudunya berbeda.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 89.25pt; text-align: justify;">
<span><span> </span>Pancaran air dari nozzle membentur sudu pada
sudut 20<sup>o</sup>. Kecepatan putar turbin turgo lebih besar dari turbin
Pelton. Akibatnya dimungkinkan transmisi langsung dari turbin ke generator
sehingga menaikkan efisiensi total sekaligus menurunkan biaya perawatan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar 4. Sudu turbin Turgo dan nozzle<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc"><span lang="IN" style="color: #0000cc;">http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc</span></a></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin
Crossflow<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 89.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>Salah satu jenis
turbin impuls ini juga dikenal dengan nama Turbin Michell-Banki yang merupakan
penemunya. Selain itu juga disebut Turbin Osberger yang merupakan perusahaan
yang memproduksi turbin crossflow. Turbin crossflow dapat dioperasikan pada
debit 20 liter/sec hingga 10 m<sup>3</sup>/sec dan head antara 1 s/d 200 m. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar 5. Instalasi Turbin Crossflow<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc"><span lang="IN" style="color: #0000cc;">http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin crossflow
menggunakan nozzle persegi panjang yang lebarnya sesuai dengan lebar runner.
Pancaran air masuk turbin dan mengenai sudu sehingga terjadi konversi energi
kinetik menjadi energi mekanis. Air mengalir keluar membentur sudu dan
memberikan energinya (lebih rendah dibanding saat masuk) kemudian meninggalkan
turbin. Runner turbin dibuat dari beberapa sudu yang dipasang pada sepasang
piringan paralel. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 36pt;">
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<span>Gambar 6. Runner Turbin Crossflow<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: right;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc"><span lang="IN" style="color: #0000cc;">http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin crossflow
baik sekali digunakan untuk pusat tenaga air yang kecil dengan daya kurang dari
750 kW. Pembuatan dan pemasangan konstruksi sangat sederhana, dan biaya
pembuatan murah. Konstruksi secara lengkap dapat dilihat pada gambar 2.9.</span></div>
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<span>Gambar 7. Konstruksi turbin crossflow<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: right;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc"><span lang="IN" style="color: #0000cc;">http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc</span></a></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Reaksi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar 8. Instalasi Turbin
Reaksi<span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc"><span lang="IN" style="color: #0000cc;">http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 22.35pt;">
<span>Turbin reaksi disebut juga dengan turbin tekanan
lebih karena tekanan air sebelum masuk roda turbin lebih besar dari pada
tekanan air saat keluar roda turbin. Secara umum dapat dikatakan bahwa aliran
air yang masuk keroda turbin mempunyai energi penuh, kemudian energi ini
dipakai sebagian untuk menggerakkan roda turbin dan sebagian lagi dipergunakan
untuk mengeluarkan air kesaluran pembuangan. Jenis turbin reaksi yang sering
digunakan antara lain, turbin francis, turbin propeler atau kaplan. <i>(Fritz Dietzel, 1988:17)</i></span><i><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 13.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>Adapun<span> yang termasuk turbin reaksi, diantaranya :<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Francis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin francis
merupakan salah satu turbin reaksi. Turbin dipasang diantara sumber air tekanan
tinggi di bagian masuk dan air bertekanan rendah di bagian keluar.<span> </span>Turbin Francis menggunakan sudu pengarah.
Sudu pengarah mengarahkan air masuk secara tangensial. Sudu pengarah pada
turbin francis dapat merupakan suatu sudu pengarah yang tetap ataupun sudu
pengarah yang dapat diatur sudutnya. Untuk penggunaan pada berbagai kondisi
aliran air penggunaan sudu pengarah yang dapat diatur merupakan pilihan yang
tepat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 1cm;">
<span lang="EN-US">Konstruksi turbin
terdiri dari dari sudu pengarah dan sudu jalan, dan kedua sudu </span><span>tersebut</span><span lang="EN-US">, semuanya
terendam di dalam aliran air. Air pertama masuk pada terusan berbentuk rumah
keong. Perubahan energi seluruhnya terjadi pada sudu pengarah dan sudu gerak.
Aliran air masuk ke sudu pengarah dengan kecepatan semakin naik degan tekanan
yang semakin turun sampai roda jalan, pada roda jalan kecapatan akan naik lagi
dan tekanan turun sampai di bawah 1 atm. Untuk menghindari kavitasi, tekanan
harus dinaikan sampai 1 atm dengan cara pemasangan pipa hisap. Pengaturan daya
yang dihasilkan yaitu dengan mengatur posisi pembukaan sudu pengarah, sehingga
kapasitas air yang masuk ke roda turbin dapat diperbesar atau diperkecil.
Turbin francis dapat dipasang<span> </span>dengan
poros vertikal dan horizontal [gambar 10]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar 9.</span> <span lang="EN-US">Aliran air masuk turbin Francis</span></div>
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</v:imagedata><span>Gambar </span><span lang="EN-US">10</span><span>.</span> <span lang="EN-US">Instalasi
turbin francis</span></v:shape></div>
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<span>Gambar </span><span lang="EN-US">11</span><span>. Runner Turbin Francis</span></div>
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<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc"><span lang="IN" style="color: #0000cc;">http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Kaplan & Propeller<a href="" name="Propeller"></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">Turbin
Kaplan dan propeller merupakan turbin rekasi aliran aksial. Turbin ini tersusun
dari propeller seperti pada perahu. Propeller tersebut biasanya mempunyai tiga
hingga enam sudu. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Tidak berbeda dengan
turbin francis, turbin kaplan cara kerjanya menggunakan prinsip reaksi. Turbin
ini mempunyai roda jalan yang mirip dengan baling-baling pesawat terbang. Bila
baling-baling pesawat terbang berfungsi untuk menghasilkan gaya dorong, roda
jalan </span><span style="color: black;">pada</span><span lang="EN-US"> kaplan berfungsi untuk mendapatkan gaya <i>F </i>yaitu
gaya putar yang dapat menghasilkan torsi pada poros turbin. Berbeda dengan roda
jalan pada francis, sudu-sudu pada roda jalan kaplan dapat diputar posisinya untuk
menyesuaikan kondisi beban turbin [gambar 12]. Turbin Kaplan banyak dipakai
pada instalasi pembangkit listrk tenaga air sungai, karena turbin ini mempunyai
kelebihan dapat menyesuaikan head yang berubah-ubah sepanjang tahun. Turbin Kaplan
dapat beroperasi pada kecepatan tinggi sehingga ukuran roda turbin lebih kecil
dan dapat dikopel langsung dengan generator. Pada kondisi pada beban tidak
penuh turbin kaplan mempunyai efisiensi paling tinggi, hal ini dikarenakan sudu-sudu
turbin kaplan dapat diatur menyesuaikan dengan beban yang ada.</span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Gambar 12</span><span>.</span><span lang="EN-US"> Turbin kaplan dengan sudu jalan yang dapat
diatur<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc"><span lang="IN" style="color: #0000cc;">http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar 1</span><span lang="EN-US">3</span><span>. Runner Turbin Kaplan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc"><span lang="IN" style="color: #0000cc;">http://hendri168.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/turbin-air-utk-website.doc</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Berdasarkan fluida yang digunakan, maka turbin
dapat dibagi atas:<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin gas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin yang memanfaatkan fluida air untuk memutar roda turbin. </span><span>Turbin gas banyak digunakan oleh pesawat terbang,
helikopter dan pembangkit energi listrik skala kecil. Turbin gas digunakan
karena memiliki kelebihan. Daya yang dihasilkan turbin gas lebih banyak
dibandingkan dengan mesin siklus 4 atau 2 tak dengan berat mesin yang sama.
Artinya dengan berat yang sama daya yang dihasilkan turbin gas lebih banyak,
oleh karena itu turbin gas banyak digunakan untuk alat transportasi seperti
yang disebutkan diatas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar 1</span><span lang="EN-US">4</span><span>. Turbin Gas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://berita-iptek.blogspot.com/2008/04/cara-turbin-gas-bekerja.html"><span lang="IN">http://berita-iptek.blogspot.com/2008/04/cara-turbin-gas-bekerja.html</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin uap<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin yang memanfaatkan uap air untuk memutar roda turbin. </span><span>Turbin uap merupakan suatu penggerak mula yang
mengubah energi potensial uap menjadi energi kinetik dan energi kinetik ini
selanjutnya diubah menjadi energi mekanis dalam bentuk putaran poros turbin.
Poros turbin, lansung atau dengan bantuan roda gigi reduksi, dihubungkan dengan
mekanisme yang akan digerakkan. Tergantung pada jenis mekanisme yang digunakan,
turbin uap dapat digunakan pada berbagai bidang seperti pada bidang industri,
untuk pembangkit tenaga listrik dan untuk transportasi. Pada proses perubahan energi
potensial menjadi energi mekanisnya yaitu dalam bentuk putaran poros dilakukan
dengna berbagai cara.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar 1</span><span lang="EN-US">5</span><span>.
Turbin Uap<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://gunawananeva.wordpress.com/2010/05/04/turbin-uap-pendahuluan/"><span lang="IN">http://gunawananeva.wordpress.com/2010/05/04/turbin-uap-pendahuluan/</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin air<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin yang memanfaatkan fluida air untuk menghasilkan energy</span><span lang="EN-US">. </span><span>Turbin air dikembangkan pada abad 19 dan
digunakan secara luas untuk tenaga industri untuk jaringan listrik. Sekarang
lebih umum dipakai untuk generator listrik. Turbin kini dimanfaatkan secara
luas dan merupakan sumber energi yang dapat diperbaharukan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>G</span><span>ambar 1</span><span lang="EN-US">6</span><span>.
Turbin </span><span lang="EN-US">Air<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/%20http:/www.google.co.id/turbin-air"><span> </span><span>http://www.google.co.id/<b>turbin</b></span>-<b>air</b></a>/<cite><span> </span></cite></span><i><span><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Berdasarkan arah alirannya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin aliran radial<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin yang tegak lurus dengan arah putaran poros
turbin. Turbin dengan aliran radial digunakan untuk laju alir ( aliran <em>working
fluid </em>) rendah dan dengan perbedaaan tekanan ( <em>difference pressure )</em>
tinggi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin aliran aksial<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin yang sejajar dengan arah putaran poros
turbin. Turbin dengan aliran axial digunakan untuk laju alir tinggi dan dengan
perbedaan tekanan rendah ( 1 – 40 bar ). <em>Axial-flow turbines</em>
kebanyakan digunakan dalam aplikasi yang melibatkan fluida kompresibel. Dalam
banyak penggunaan, efisiensi <em>Axial-flow turbines</em> lebih tinggi
dibandingkan <em>radial-inflow turbin</em>es. Aliran dalam turbin diindikasikan
dalam gambar bawah ini<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar </span><span>17. </span><span>Turbin aliran aksial<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://arya1984.wordpress.com/2010/02/14/turbin-gas/"><span lang="IN">http://arya1984.wordpress.com/2010/02/14/turbin-gas/</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Dimana kecepatan fluida merupakan parameter
penting dalam menganalisis aliran dan transfer energy dalam turbin. Kecepatan
fluida relative terhadap titik stationer dinamakan kecepatan absolute (V). hal
ini penting untuk menganalisis aliran yang melewati stationery blade (nozzle). </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span><span> </span>Berdasarkan
putaran spesifiknya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Tabel
1 : Pemilihan jenis turbin berdasarkan kecepatan spesifik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>No<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Kecepatan spesifik (rpm)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Type / Jenis turbin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span>3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span>4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 83.7pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 126.35pt;" valign="top" width="168">
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<span>10 sampai 35<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>35 sampai 60<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span>60 samapi 300<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>300 sampai 1000<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin Pelton dengan Nozzel tunggal<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin Pelton dengan dua Nozzel atau lebih<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Turbin Francis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span>Turbin Kaplan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span>(Sumber :
<span style="color: blue;">R.S. Khurmi, 1982 : 616</span>)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span>Putaran spesifik diperkenalkan dalam konstruksi
turbin untuk memberi penjelasan tentang karakteristik dari sifat-sifat hidrolik
dari suatu turbin menyangkut putaran dan kapasitas dipindahkan untuk
dibandingkan dengan bermacam tipe dari turbin dan runners (roda turbin).
Putaran spesifik ialah kecepatan berputar dari suatu turbin dalam seri-seri
yang ditentukan, yang mempunyai daya N = 1 HP dengan H = 1 meter.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Biasanya putaran spesifik dihitung untuk daya
keluaran rata-rata dari suatu turbin di bawah head yang sudah dihitung dan
putaran normal. Dalam pengembangan turbin hidrolik sering dinaikkan putaran
spesifiknya. Untuk daya dan head yang tinggi diketahui suatu kenaikan putaran
spesifik yang diizinkan untuk turbin yang lebih kecil dimensinya dan lebih
putarannya. Putaran spesifik dari suatu turbin tergantung dari keadaan airnya
yang mengalir. Hal itu juga tergantung pada jumlah dan bentuk dari sudu-sudu.
Bila putaran spesifik naik, maka dimensi dari runner turbin akan turun dan
sebaliknya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Berdasarkan ketinggian jatuh (head) maka turbin
dibagi atas :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 49.65pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.2pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Pelton (2000-6000 ft)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Untuk turbin Pelton dengan daya yang kecil bisa diatur dengan hanya
menggeser kedudukan jarum sudu. Untuk instalasi turbin Pelton yang besar harus
menggunakan dua buah system pengaturan, maksudnya untuk menghindari adanya
tekanan tumbukan yang besar di dalam pipa saluran (pipa pesat) yang timbul akibat
penutupan nosel tiba-tiba. Tekanan statis dari tinggi air jatuh menghasilkan
tekanan dinamis yang bekerja di aliran berupa energi kecepatan ini berubah
menjadi tekanan tumbukan. Untuk menghindari tekanan tumbukan ini, kerja jarum
nosel dibantu dengan suatu perlengkapan yang disebut dengan pembelok pancaran.
Pada saat beban turbin berkurang dengan tiba-tiba pembelok pancaran akan
berayun ke muka jarum nosel lebih dahulu, sehingga arah pancaran air dari nosel
ke sudu jalan menjadi belok. Kemudian jarum nosel bergeser memperkecil
penampang keluar nosel, pembelok pancaran akan tetap berada di pinggir pancaran
air. Selanjutnya nosel rem yang sudah dipersiapkan memancarkan air ke arah
sebelah belakang ember sudu yang berguna untuk memperlambat putaran turbin sampai
di dalam batas yang diizinkan bila arus listrik dari generator diputuskan.
Turbin Pelton, bekerja pada ketinggian air jatuh yang sangat tinggi yaitu
antara 2000-6000 ft.<span> </span></span></div>
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<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1207" o:spid="_x0000_i1042" style="height: 98.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 167.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image020.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar 18. Turbin Pelton<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: center;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.a10smart.co.cc/"><span lang="IN">http://www.a10smart.co.cc/</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Francis (10-100 ft)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Air mengalir masuk ke dalam roda jalan turbin Francis semuanya melalui sudu
pengarah, yang bisa digerakkan membuka dan menutup dengan memakai pertolongan
cincin pengatur yang digerakkan regulator melalui tuas penggerak. Dengan
memakai alat ini, selain kapasitas air, arah (α) arus air yang masuk ke roda
jalan bisa diubah. Pada instalasi turbin yang besar, system pengaturan di atas
dilengkapi dengan katup pelepas, melalui saluran ini sebagian dan kapasitas air
dengan cepat bisa dibelokkan untuk dibuang dengan melewati saluran<span> </span>pembuangan,<span>
</span>maksud<span> </span>dari<span> </span>sistem<span>
</span>ini adalah<span> </span>untuk menghindari
kenaikan tekanan di dalam pipa saluran (pipa pesat) dan menghindari kenaikan
kecepatan putaran turbin bila beban turbin turun dengan tiba-tiba. Turbin
Francis, bekerja pada head yang sedang yaitu antara 10-100 ft.</span><span> <span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image021.png">
</v:imagedata><span><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span>Gambar 19. Turbin Franci</span><span lang="EN-US">s</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.tridentes.com/energy/en/turbines.html"><span lang="IN">http://www.tridentes.com/energy/en/turbines.html</span></a></span></div>
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<span>Konstruksi Turbin
Francis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Francis Sperical Case dari Baja<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Horizontal<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span><v:shape alt="Picture3" id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_i1041" style="height: 111.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 302.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata blacklevel="-6554f" cropleft="1298f" cropright="649f" gain="109227f" o:title="Picture3" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image022.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar
20. Turbin Francis Sperical Case Horizontal<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://prinsipkerjadanmacam-macamturbinmuchlison.ppt/"><span lang="IN">http://PrinsipKerjadanMacam-MacamTurbinMUCHLISON.ppt</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Vertikal <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape alt="scan0037" id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1040" style="height: 114pt; visibility: visible; width: 208.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata blacklevel="-6554f" gain="109227f" o:title="scan0037" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image023.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar
</span><span lang="EN-US">2</span><span>1. Turbin
Francis Sperical Case Vertikal<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://prinsipkerjadanmacam-macamturbinmuchlison.ppt/"><span lang="IN">http://PrinsipKerjadanMacam-MacamTurbinMUCHLISON.ppt</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Francis Open Flume<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span><v:shape alt="Gambar 1" id="_x0000_i1039" style="height: 103.5pt; visibility: visible; width: 285.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata blacklevel="-6554f" gain="109227f" o:title="Gambar 1" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image024.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar
</span><span lang="EN-US">2</span><span>2. Turbin
Francis Open Flume<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: center;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://prinsipkerjadanmacam-macamturbinmuchlison.ppt/"><span lang="IN">http://PrinsipKerjadanMacam-MacamTurbinMUCHLISON.ppt</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Francis Sperical Case dari Beton <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
<span><v:shape alt="Picture2" id="Picture_x0020_4" o:spid="_x0000_i1038" style="height: 101.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 260.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata blacklevel="-6554f" gain="109227f" o:title="Picture2" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image025.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar
</span><span lang="EN-US">2</span><span>3. Turbin
Francis Sperical Case dari Beton<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
<span>Sumber
: </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://prinsipkerjadanmacam-macamturbinmuchlison.ppt/"><span lang="IN">http://PrinsipKerjadanMacam-MacamTurbinMUCHLISON.ppt</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Turbin Kaplan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 3cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>Turbin Kaplan
mempunyai pengaturan ganda dimana pada waktu yang sama posisi sudu pengarah
dengan jalan alat pengarah Finkschen dan pemutaran sudut sudu jalan melalui
system hidrolik yang dilaksanakan dengan memakai motor pengatur. Fungsi cakra
melengkung adalah untuk pengaturan sudu pengarah dan roda jalan saling
berhubungan. Bentuk kelengkungan cakra harus sedemikian rupa sehingga untuk
setiap besaran volume air yang masuk ke turbin dan tiap posisi permukaan kipas
sudu jalan, bisa menghasilkan suatu randemen turbin yang harganya maksimum.
Pada instalasi turbin yang besar, bila mengalami perubahan tinggi air yang<span> </span>jatuh<span>
</span>dalam jangka<span> </span>waktu<span> </span>yang lama, maka untuk turbin tersebut
dibuatkan cakra melengkung yang lain, yang <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="_x0000_i1037" style="height: 93.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 248.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="Untitled-Scanned-03" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image026.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Gambar
24. Turbin </span><span lang="EN-US">kaplan</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: center;">
<span>Sumber : </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://prinsipkerjadanmacam-macamturbinmuchlison.ppt/"><span lang="IN">http://PrinsipKerjadanMacam-MacamTurbinMUCHLISON.ppt</span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;">
<span>lebih sesuai dengan kondisi turbin
waktu itu. Turbin Kaplan, bekerja pada head yang kecil dengan bentuk sudu yang
mirip baling-baling yaitu membawa aliran dengan belokan hanya sedikit.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Klasifikasi dari turbin- turbin modern berdasarkan
head dan debitnya adalah sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span>Tabel 2: Klasifikasi dari turbin-turbin Hidrolik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none; width: 516px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 7.85pt;">
<td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; height: 7.85pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.8pt;" width="73">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">Classes<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td colspan="3" style="border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 7.85pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 160.35pt;" width="214">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">Reaction<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td colspan="3" style="border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; height: 7.85pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 171.75pt;" width="229">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">Impulse<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 7.85pt;">
<td rowspan="2" style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 7.85pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.8pt;" width="73">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -4.6pt 0.0001pt -5.4pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">Systems<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 7.85pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 105.45pt;" width="141">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">Axial
(propeller)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 7.85pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.9pt;" width="73">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">Francis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">(axial-radial)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 7.85pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 70.05pt;" width="93">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">Pelton<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 7.85pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 51.4pt;" width="69">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">Inclined jet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 7.85pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 50.3pt;" width="67">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span>Double jet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 5pt;">
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.6pt;" width="78">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt -6.2pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">Kaplan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt -6.2pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">(adjustable blades)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 46.8pt;" width="62">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">Fixed blades<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 57.65pt;">
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 57.65pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.8pt;" width="73">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -4.6pt 0.0001pt -5.4pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 200%;">Limits of
applicability<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 57.65pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 58.6pt;" width="78">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt -6.2pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">H = 2-70 m<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt -6.2pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt -6.2pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">D = 1-10 m<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt -6.2pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt -6.2pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt -6.2pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt -6.2pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">N<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt -6.2pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">up to<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt -6.2pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">250.000 kW<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 57.65pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 46.8pt;" width="62">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">H = 2-70 m<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">D<sub>1</sub>
=0.35-9 m<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">N<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">up to<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">150.000 kW<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 57.65pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 54.9pt;" width="73">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">H =<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">30-450 (lz)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">H = 2-200m (small sizes)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">D<sub>1</sub> =<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">0.35-7.5 m<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">N<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">up to<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">500.000 kW<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 57.65pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 70.05pt;" width="93">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">H =<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">300-1700 (large sizes)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">H = 40-250m (small sizes)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">D<sub>1</sub> =<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">0.36-5.2 m<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">N<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">up to<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">110.000 kW<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 57.65pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 51.4pt;" width="69">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-right: -5.4pt;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">H =30-400 m<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">N =<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -5.4pt 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">10-4000 kW<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 57.65pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 50.3pt;" width="67">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -1.75pt 0.0001pt -5.4pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">H =10-60 m<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -1.75pt 0.0001pt -5.4pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -1.75pt 0.0001pt -5.4pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -1.75pt 0.0001pt -5.4pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">N =<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm -1.75pt 0.0001pt -5.4pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">10-150 kW<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 148.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -135pt;">
<span>Sumber : <span style="color: blue;">John B.
Manga.1992. <i>Dasar-Dasar Turbin Air Dan Perencanaan. </i>Ujungpandang.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span>PERAWATAN TURBIN FRANCIS</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>Sebuah turbin yang terus-menerus digunakan untuk
suatu keperluan membutuhkan perawatan, sebab dengan perawatan ini diharapkan
kita bisa<span> </span>mempertahankan kualitas dari
suatu komponen turbin agar dicapai efisiensi maksimum dari turbin tersebut.
Untuk keperluan ini kita bisa menempuh beberapa cara antara lain :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Inspeksi,
yaitu melakukan pemeriksaan terhadap bagian-bagian turbin mengenai kerusakan
dan kemungkinan yang akan terjadi pada sudu-sudu poros, motor penggerak, dan
lain-lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Preventif,
yaitu melakukan perawatan pada komponen-komponen turbin sesuai dengan
prosedur-prosedur dan petunjuk perawatan untuk menghindari kerusakan, seperti
pelumasan, dan lain-lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Korektif, hal
ini bisa dilakukan dengan cara :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18.55pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Perbaikan,
ini dilakukan untuk komponen turbin yang mengalami kerusakan dan memungkinkan
untuk diperbaiki, serta harganya cukup mahal untuk diganti.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18.55pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Penggantian,
ini dilakukan untuk komponen-komponen turbin yang rusak dan biayanya relative
murah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 35.45pt; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Perawatan
Darurat, yaitu perawatan yang dilakukan pada turbin secara darurat jika terjadi
kerusakan, dan melanjutkan operasinya seperti membersihkan sudu-sudu, dan
lain-lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="margin-left: 21.3pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span><span>J.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span>KEHILANGAN
YANG TERDAPAT DALAM INSTALASI TURBIN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Kehilangan hidraulik pada aliran air dari turbin
yang diatur oleh hukum-hukum umum dari gesekan hidraulik pada pipa-pipa
penyalur. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>Pada aliran
turbulen uniform (serba sama), kehilangan head akibat gesekan mengenai atau
melewati dinding yang kehalusannya relatif. Pada kehilangan ini keseluruhan
efisiensi akan naik dalam bentuk diameter dan head efektif.<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: right;">
<b><span>h<sub>r </sub>= </span></b><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>∝</m:r></span></i></b></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 3pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 14.25pt; width: 8.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata chromakey="white" o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image027.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><b><sub><span><span> </span></span></sub></b><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:f><m:fPr><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-ansi-language:IN;font-weight:bold;
font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal;vertical-align:sub'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:fPr><m:num><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><sub><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>l</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr> .</m:r></span></sub></i></b><m:sSup><m:sSupPr><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-ansi-language:IN;font-weight:
bold;font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal;vertical-align:sub'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSupPr><m:e><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><sub><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>v</m:r></span></sub></i></b></m:e><m:sup><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><sub><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>n</m:r></span></sub></i></b></m:sup></m:sSup></m:num><m:den><m:sSup><m:sSupPr><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-ansi-language:IN;font-weight:
bold;font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal;vertical-align:sub'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSupPr><m:e><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><sub><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>r</m:r></span></sub></i></b></m:e><m:sup><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><sub><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>m</m:r></span></sub></i></b></m:sup></m:sSup></m:den></m:f></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 7pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 21.75pt; width: 16.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata chromakey="white" o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image028.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><b><sub><span><span> </span>………………………………………………..<span> </span></span></sub></b><span>(Persamaan 1)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;">
<span>Sumber : John B. Manga.1992. <i>Dasar-Dasar
Turbin Air Dan Perencanaan. </i>Ujungpandang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;">
<span>dimana :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;">
<span>R = jari-jari hidraulik dari aliran<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="p"/></m:rPr>∝</m:r></span></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 3pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 14.25pt; width: 8.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata chromakey="white" o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image027.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><span><span> </span>= koefisien kekasaran dinding
yang diizinkan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span>v<span> </span>= kecepatan aliran air<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt;">
<span>l<span> </span>= panjang dari passage<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Kehilangan Eddy (Eddy losses) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>Yang disebabkan
oleh bermacam-macam sebab misalnya dalam hal arah dari kecepatan yang identik
dengan kehilangan lokal (local losses) dalam saluran. Kehilangan ini termasuk
dalam kehilangan energi kinetik pada<span>
</span>pemasukan tabung draft. Untuk turbin-turbin yang besar satuan debitnya Q<sub>f</sub>,
misalnya pada putaran spesifik yang tinggi, kehilangan ini akan menjadi lebih
besar dan efisiensi menjadi lebih kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: right;">
<b><span>h<sub>v </sub>= </span></b><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:nary><m:naryPr><m:chr
m:val="∑"/><m:limLoc m:val="undOvr"/><m:subHide m:val="on"/><m:supHide
m:val="on"/><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:
"Cambria Math";mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-ansi-language:IN;
font-weight:bold;font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:naryPr><m:sub></m:sub><m:sup></m:sup><m:e><m:sSub><m:sSubPr><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-ansi-language:IN;font-weight:
bold;font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSubPr><m:e><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>ε</m:r></span></i></b></m:e><m:sub><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>i</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr> </m:r></span></i></b></m:sub></m:sSub></m:e></m:nary><m:f><m:fPr><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-ansi-language:IN;font-weight:bold;
font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:fPr><m:num><m:sSubSup><m:sSubSupPr><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-ansi-language:IN;font-weight:
bold;font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSubSupPr><m:e><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>v</m:r></span></i></b></m:e><m:sub><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>i</m:r></span></i></b></m:sub><m:sup><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span></m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>2</m:r></span></i></b></m:sup></m:sSubSup></m:num><m:den><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>2g</m:r></span></i></b></m:den></m:f></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 24.75pt; width: 36.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata chromakey="white" o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image029.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><b><span><span> </span><sub>……………………………………..<span> </span></sub></span></b><span>(Persamaan 2)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span>Sumber : John B. Manga.1992. <i>Dasar-Dasar
Turbin Air Dan Perencanaan. </i>Ujungpandang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span>dimana v<sub>i</sub> dan </span><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:sSub><m:sSubPr><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-ansi-language:IN;font-style:italic;
mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSubPr><m:e><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r>ε</m:r></span></i></m:e><m:sub><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r>i</m:r><m:r> </m:r></span></i></m:sub></m:sSub><i
style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r>adala</m:r><m:r>h </m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 3pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 14.25pt; width: 51pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata chromakey="white" o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image030.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><span>masing-masing
koefisien kecepatan dan koefisien kehilangan pada bagian aliran yang ke i.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Kehilangan volumetris <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>yang menjelaskan
bahwa pada kenyataannya hanya bagian air yang mencapai roda turbin (runner)
yang dapat mengalir melaluinya. Sebagian saja dari air tersebut yang melalui
sela-sela poros sepanjang rim dan pada turbin Kaplan, air sebagian melalui
celah (clearance) antara roda turbin dan leher cincin (throat ring).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: right;">
<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:
normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>∆</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>Q</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>= </m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>μ</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr> </m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>F</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr> </m:r></span></i></b><m:rad><m:radPr><m:degHide
m:val="on"/><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:
"Cambria Math";mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-ansi-language:IN;
font-weight:bold;font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:radPr><m:deg></m:deg><m:e><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>2gh</m:r></span></i></b></m:e></m:rad></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 4.5pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 17.25pt; width: 86.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata chromakey="white" o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image031.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><b><span><span> </span><sub>……………………………………..<span> </span></sub></span></b><span>(Persamaan 3)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span>Sumber : John B. Manga.1992. <i>Dasar-Dasar
Turbin Air Dan Perencanaan. </i>Ujungpandang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="p"/></m:rPr>dimana</m:r></span></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 3pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 14.25pt; width: 38.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata chromakey="white" o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image032.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><span><span> </span>:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;">
<span>F = luas
potongan melintang dari ruang rugi (clearance)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r>μ</m:r><m:r>
</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 3pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 14.25pt; width: 9.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata chromakey="white" o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image033.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><span>= koefisien jumlah pemindahan debit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Kehilangan mekanis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span><span> </span>dalam bantalan yang disebabkan oleh
bagian-bagian yang berputar pada turbin. Untuk turbin vertikal, kehilangan ini
ditentukan atau disebabkan terutama dalam bantalan dorong dan harganya
tergantung pada beban aksial.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: right;">
<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:
normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>∆</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>N</m:r></span></i></b><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="b"/></m:rPr>=
</m:r></span></b><m:sSub><m:sSubPr><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-ansi-language:IN;font-weight:bold;mso-bidi-font-style:italic'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSubPr><m:e><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="b"/></m:rPr>M</m:r></span></b></m:e><m:sub><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";
mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="b"/></m:rPr>f</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="b"/></m:rPr><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span></m:r></span></b></m:sub></m:sSub></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 3pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 14.25pt; width: 56.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata chromakey="white" o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image034.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><b><span>w = M<sub>f </sub></span></b><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><sub><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span></m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>π</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="bi"/></m:rPr> </m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>n</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>/</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>30</m:r></span></sub></i></b></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 3pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 14.25pt; width: 41.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><b><sub><span><span> </span><span>……………………..<span>
</span></span></span></sub></b><span>(Persamaan 4)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span>Sumber : John B. Manga.1992. <i>Dasar-Dasar
Turbin Air Dan Perencanaan. </i>Ujungpandang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -14.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Kehilangan yang disebabkan oleh gesekan disk, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>misalnya kehilangan
daya disebabkan oleh gesekan antara putaran permukaan (revolving surface) dari
turbin dan air di luar dari jalan lintas air (water passage) akan menjadi besar
pada turbin Francis sebab turbin ini mempunyai permukaan rotasi yang lebih
besar pada batas pemasukan serta pengeluaran dan celah-celahnya.</span><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>∆</m:r></span></i></b><m:sSub><m:sSubPr><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-ansi-language:IN;font-weight:bold;
font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSubPr><m:e><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>n</m:r></span></i></b></m:e><m:sub><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>d</m:r></span></i></b></m:sub></m:sSub></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 3pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 14.25pt; width: 21pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><b><span><span> </span>= A </span></b><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:oMath><m:sSubSup><m:sSubSupPr><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ascii-font-family:"Cambria Math";
mso-hansi-font-family:"Cambria Math";mso-ansi-language:IN;font-weight:bold;
font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><m:ctrlPr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSubSupPr><m:e><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>D</m:r></span></i></b></m:e><m:sub><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>f</m:r></span></i></b></m:sub><m:sup><b
style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style='font-family:"Cambria Math","serif";mso-ansi-language:IN'><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr
m:val="roman"/><m:sty m:val="bi"/></m:rPr><span
style='mso-spacerun:yes'> </span></m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="bi"/></m:rPr>5</m:r><m:r><m:rPr><m:scr m:val="roman"/><m:sty
m:val="bi"/></m:rPr> </m:r></span></i></b></m:sup></m:sSubSup></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 17.25pt; width: 20.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><!--[endif]--><b><span>n<sup>3</sup></span></b><span><span> </span><b><sub>……………………..<span> </span></sub></b>(Persamaan </span><span lang="EN-US">5</span><span>) dimana A adalah suatu
koefisien yang tergantung pada viskositas, fluidity, dimensi, dan bentuk dari
permukaan gerakan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 148.5pt; text-align: center; text-indent: -126pt;">
<span>Sumber : <span style="color: blue;">John B.
Manga.1992. <i>Dasar-Dasar Turbin Air Dan Perencanaan</i></span></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 4cm; text-align: center; text-indent: -90.9pt;">
<span style="color: blue;">Ujungpandang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>K.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">SEGITIGA KECEPATAN PADA
TURBIN<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr>
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<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">C<sub>we</sub></span></div>
</div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
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<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">C<sub>wi</sub></span></div>
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</tr>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">C<sub>fe</sub></span></div>
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</tr>
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</v:stroke><v:shape filled="f" id="_x0000_s1048" stroked="f" style="height: 582px; left: 3548px; position: absolute; top: 5505px; width: 862px;" type="#_x0000_t202">
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<v:textbox>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">C<sub>ae</sub></span></div>
</div>
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</tr>
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<v:textbox>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">C<sub>fi</sub></span></div>
</div>
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</tr>
</tbody></table>
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</v:stroke><v:shape filled="f" id="_x0000_s1050" stroked="f" style="height: 581px; left: 4410px; position: absolute; top: 6087px; width: 863px;" type="#_x0000_t202">
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<v:textbox>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">C<sub>re</sub></span></div>
</div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
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<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">C<sub>ai</sub></span></div>
</div>
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</tbody></table>
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</v:stroke><v:shape filled="f" id="_x0000_s1052" stroked="f" style="height: 582px; left: 7645px; position: absolute; top: 5699px; width: 863px;" type="#_x0000_t202">
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
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<td><!--[endif]-->
<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">C<sub>ri</sub></span></div>
</div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perubahan kecepatan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">aliran (C<sub>fe</sub>-C<sub>fi</sub>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
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<div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">Perubahan kecepatan putar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt;">- (C<sub>wi</sub>-C<sub>we</sub>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="IT">( Gambar</span><span> 25.</span><span lang="IT"> segitiga kecepatan
pada turbin Francis )<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IT">Sejumlah debit air </span><span>dengan kecepatan tinggi </span><span lang="IT">yang memiliki gaya potensial disemprotkan oleh
nossle menuju sudu – sudu turbin akan mempunyai dua jenis kecepatan, </span><span>yaitu</span><span lang="IT"> kecepatan absolute dan kecepatan relative, yang kemudian diubah menjadi
energi mekanik pada turbin. Air semburan nossle yang menyentuh sudu turbin akan
menghasilkan kecepatan absolute (Ca), yang terbagi menjadi dua yaitu kecepatan
absolute masuk (Cai), yang terjadi sewaktu air disemprotkan langsung ke arah
sudu dan kecepatan absolute keluar (Cae), yang terjadi pada saat air yang masuk
ke sudu terpantul / tertumbuk keluar sudu. Sebagian dari semburan air dari
nossle akan masuk menyusuri sudu hingga menyentuh poros turbin dan menghasilkan
kecepatan relative (Cr), yang juga terbagi menjadi kecepatan relative masuk
(Cri), yang terjadi pada saat air menyusur masuk menyentuh poros dan kecepatan
relative keluar (Cre), yang terjadi saat air tertumbuk kembali keluar poros
turbin. Pada segitiga kecepatan dapat dibandingkan antara kecepatan fluida
masuk (Cfi), dan kecepatan fluida keluar<span>
</span>(Cfe), dimana (Cfi) lebih besar dibanding dengan (Cfe). Hal tersebut
disebabkan oleh karena terjadinya kehilangan – kehilangan dalam turbin akibat
gesekan antara semburan air dengan permukaan sudu dan poros sekaligus
berpindahnya sebagian daya tekan air (energi potensial) menjadi gerak turbin
(energi kinerik). Selain itu nilai perubahan kecepatan masuk (Cwi), juga lebih
besar dibandingkan dengan perubahan kecepatan keluar (Cwe). </span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>L.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">PERSAMAAN
BERNOULLY</span></strong><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Sebelumnya kita telah belajar mengenai prinsip Om Bernoulli. Nah, Om
Bernoulli juga mengembangkan prinsipnya itu secara kuantitatif. Untuk
menurunkan persamaan Bernoulli, kita anggap aliran fluida tunak & laminar,
tak-termampatkan alias tidak bisa ditekan, viskositas alias kekentalannya juga
kecil sehingga bisa diabaikan.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Pada pembahasan mengenai Persamaan Kontinuitas, kita sudah belajar
bahwa laju aliran fluida juga dapat berubah-ubah tergantung luas penampang
tabung alir. Berdasarkan prinsip om Bernoulli yang dijelaskan di atas, tekanan
fluida juga bisa berubah-ubah tergantung laju aliran fluida tersebut. Selain
itu, dalam pembahasan mengenai Tekanan Pada Fluida (Fluida Statis), kita juga
belajar bahwa tekanan fluida juga bisa berubah-ubah tergantung pada ketinggian
fluida tersebut. Nah, hubungan penting antara tekanan, laju aliran dan
ketinggian aliran bisa kita peroleh dalam persamaan Bernoulli. Persamaan
bernoulli ini sangat penting karena bisa digunakan untuk menganalisis
penerbangan pesawat, pembangkit listrik tenaga air, sistem perpipaan dkk.</span></div>
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US">Agar persamaan Bernoulli yang akan kita turunkan
berlaku secara umum, maka kita anggap fluida mengalir melalui tabung alir
dengan luas penampang yang tidak sama dan ketinggiannya juga berbeda (lihat
gambar di bawah). Untuk menurunkan persamaan Bernoulli, kita terapkan teorema
usaha dan energi pada fluida dalam daerah tabung alir (ingat kembali pembahasan
mengenai usaha dan energi). Selanjutnya, kita akan memperhitungkan banyaknya
fluida dan usaha yang dilakukan untuk memindahkan fluida tersebut.</span><span><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Warna buram dalam tabung alir pada gambar menunjukkan aliran fluida
sedangkan warna putih menunjukkan tidak ada fluida.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Fluida pada luas penampang 1 (bagian kiri) mengalir sejauh L<sub>1</sub>
dan memaksa fluida pada penampang 2 (bagian kanan) untuk berpindah sejauh L<sub>2</sub>.
Karena luas penampang 2 di bagian kanan lebih kecil, maka laju aliran fluida
pada bagian kanan tabung alir lebih besar (Ingat persamaan kontinuitas). Hal
ini menyebabkan perbedaan tekanan antara penampang 2 (bagian kanan tabung alir)
dan penampang 1 (bagian kiri tabung alir) – Ingat prinsip Bernoulli. Fluida
yang berada di sebelah kiri penampang 1 memberikan tekanan P<sub>1</sub> pada
fluida di sebelah kanannya dan melakukan usaha sebesar :</span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Pada penampang 2 (bagian kanan tabung alir), usaha yang dilakukan
pada fluida adalah :</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">W<sub>1</sub> = – p<sub>2</sub>
A<sub>2</sub> L<sub>2</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Tanda negatif menunjukkan bahwa gaya yang diberikan berlawanan
dengan arah gerak. Jadi fluida melakukan usaha di sebelah kanan penampang 2.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Di samping itu, gaya gravitasi juga melakukan usaha pada fluida.
Pada kasus di atas, sejumlah massa fluida dipindahkan dari penampang 1 sejauh L<sub>1</sub>
ke penampang 2 sejauh L<sub>2</sub>, di mana volume fluida pada penampang 1 (A<sub>1</sub>L<sub>1</sub>)
= volume fluida pada penampang 2 (A<sub>2</sub>L<sub>2</sub>). Usaha yang
dilakukan oleh gravitasi adalah :</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">W<sub>3 </sub>= – mg (h<sub>2</sub>
– h<sub>1</sub>)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">W<sub>3 </sub>= – mgh<sub>2</sub>
+ mgh<sub>1</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">W<sub>3 </sub>= mgh<sub>1</sub>
– mgh<sub>2</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Tanda negatif disebabkan karena fluida mengalir ke atas, berlawanan
dengan arah gaya gravitasi. Dengan demikian, usaha total yang dilakukan pada
fluida sesuai dengan gambar di atas adalah :</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">W = W<sub>1 </sub>+ W<sub>2</sub>
+ W<sub>3</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">W = P<sub>1</sub>A<sub>1</sub>L<sub>1</sub>
– P<sub>2</sub>A<sub>2</sub>L<sub>2</sub> + mgh<sub>1</sub> – mgh<sub>2 </sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Teorema usaha-energi menyatakan bahwa usaha total yang dilakukan
pada suatu sistem sama dengan perubahan energi kinetiknya. Dengan demikian,
kita bisa menggantikan Usaha (W) dengan perubahan energi kinetik (EK<sub>2</sub>
– EK<sub>1</sub>). Persamaan di atas bisa kita tulis lagi menjadi :</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">W = P<sub>1</sub>A<sub>1</sub>L<sub>1</sub>
– P<sub>2</sub>A<sub>2</sub>L<sub>2</sub> + mgh<sub>1</sub> – mgh<sub>2</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">EK<sub>2 </sub>- EK<sub>1</sub>
= P<sub>1</sub>A<sub>1</sub>L<sub>1</sub> – P<sub>2</sub>A<sub>2</sub>L<sub>2</sub>
+ mgh<sub>1</sub> – mgh<sub>2</sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">½ mv<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> –
½ mv<sub>1</sub><sup>2</sup> = P<sub>1</sub>A<sub>1</sub>L<sub>1</sub> – P<sub>2</sub>A<sub>2</sub>L<sub>2</sub>
+ mgh<sub>1</sub> – mgh<sub>2</sub></span></div>
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US">Ingat bahwa massa fluida yang mengalir sejauh L<sub>1
</sub>pada penampang A<sub>1</sub> = massa fluida yang mengalir sejauh L<sub>2</sub>
(penampang A<sub>2</sub>). Sejumlah massa fluida itu, sebut saja m, mempunyai
volume sebesar A<sub>1</sub>L<sub>1 </sub>dan A<sub>2</sub>L<sub>2</sub>, di
mana A<sub>1</sub>L<sub>1</sub> = A<sub>2</sub>L<sub>2</sub> (L<sub>2</sub>
lebih panjang dari L<sub>1</sub>).</span></v:shape></div>
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US">Sekarang kita subtitusikan alias kita gantikan m
pada persamaan di atas :</span></v:shape></div>
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US">Persamaan ini bisa juga ditulis dalam bentuk seperti
ini :</span><span><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US">Ini adalah persamaan Om Bernoulli. Persamaan om
Bernoulli ini kita turunkan berdasarkan prinsip usaha-energi, sehingga
merupakan suatu bentuk Hukum Kekekalan Energi</span></v:shape></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Keterangan :</span></div>
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US">Ruas kiri dan ruas kanan pada persamaan Bernoulli di
atas bisa mengacu pada dua titik di mana saja sepanjang tabung aliran sehingga
kita bisa menulis kembali persamaan di atas menjadi :</span><span><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Persamaan ini menyatakan bahwa jumlah total antara besaran-besaran
dalam persamaan mempunyai nilai yang sama sepanjang tabung alir. Sekarang mari
kita tinjau persamaan Bernoulli untuk beberapa kasus.</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-weight: normal;"><span> </span>Persamaan Bernoulli pada Fluida Diam</span></strong><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Kasus khusus dari persamaan Bernoulli adalah untuk fluida yang diam
(fluida statis). Ketika fluida diam alias tidak bergerak, fluida tersebut tentu
saja tidak punya kecepatan. Dengan demikian, v<sub>1</sub> = v<sub>2</sub> = 0.
Pada kasus fluida diam, persamaan Bernouli bisa kita rumuskan menjadi :</span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_112" o:spid="_x0000_i1036" style="height: 154.5pt; visibility: visible; width: 5in;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-weight: normal;">Persamaan Bernoulli pada Tabung Alir atau
Pipa yang ketinggiannya sama</span></strong><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US">Jika ketinggian tabung alir atau pipa sama, maka
persamaan Bernoulli bisa dioprek menjadi :</span><span><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Sumber</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #4f81bd;">: </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue;">http://www.gouldspumps.com/cpf_0011.htm</span></i><span style="color: blue;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>M.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 200%;">KAVITASI <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Kavitasi </span><span lang="EN-US">adalah</span><span lang="EN-US">
gejala menguapnya zat cair yang sedang mengalir, karena tekanannya berkurang
sampai dibawah tekanan uap jenuh. Misalnya pada air bertekanan 1 atmosfir akan
mendidih dan menjadi uap jenuh pada temperatur 99,6<sup> o</sup>C. Tetapi jika
tekanan direndahkan, maka air akan mendidih pada temperatur yang lebih rendah.
Jika tekanannya cukup rendah maka pada temperatur kamar pun air dapat mendidih.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Apabila zat cair mendidih
maka akan timbul gelembung-gelembung<span> </span>uap
zat cair. Hal ini dapat </span><span lang="EN-US">terjadi</span><span lang="EN-US"> pada zat cair yang sedang mengalir di
dalam turbin maupun di dalam pipa. Tempat yang bertekanan rendah dan/atau
berkecepatan tinggi di dalam aliran, sangat rawan terhadap terjadinya kavitasi
pada sisi isapnya. Kavitasi akan timbul bila tekanan isap terlalu rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Jika turbin mengalami
kavitasi, maka akan timbul suara berisik dan getaran. Selain itu performansi </span><span lang="EN-US">turbin</span><span lang="EN-US">
tidak dapat bekerja dengan baik. Jika turbin dijalankaan dalam keadaan kavitasi
secara terus-menerus dalam jangkawaktu yang cukup lama maka permukaan dinding
saluran sekitar aliran yang berkavitasi akan mengalami kerusakan. Permukaan
dinding akan termakan sehingga menjadi berlubang-lubang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Peristiwa ini disebut </span><span lang="EN-US">erosi</span><span lang="EN-US">
kavitasi sebagai akibat dari tumbukan gelombang uap yang parah pada dinding
secara terus menerus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Karena kaviatasi sangat
merugikan yaitu mengakibatkan turunnya performansi, timbulnya suara dan
getaran, serta rusaknya turbin, maka gejala ini harus dicegah dengan segala
cara.</span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Cara </span><span lang="EN-US">Penanggulangan</span><span lang="EN-US"> Kavitasi :</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></b><b><span><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Kavitasi</span><span lang="EN-US"> pada dasarnya dapat dicegah dengan membuat NPSH yang tersedia lebih
besar daripada NPSH yang diperlukan . Dalam perencanaan instalasi pompa
,hal-hal berikut ini harus diperhatikan untuk menghindari kavitasi :</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Ketinggian letak pompa terhadap
permukaan zat cair yang diisap harus dibuat sserendah mungkin agar head isap
menjadi rendah pula .</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pipa isap harus dibuat sependek
mungkin . Jika terpaksa dipakai pipa isap yang panjang , sebaiknya diambil pipa
isap yang berdiameter satu nomor lebih besar untuk mrngurangi kerugian gesek .</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Sama sekali tidak dibenarkan
untuk memperkecil laju aliran dengan menghambat disisi isap . </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Jika pompa memiliki head total
yang berlebihan , maka pompa akan bekerja dengnan kapasitas aliran yang
berlebihan pula ,sehingga kemungkinan akan terjadi kavitasi menjadi lebih besar
. Karena itu head total pompa harus ditentukan sedemikian ssehingga sesuai
dengan yang diperlukan pada kondisi operasi yang sesungguhnya . </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>N.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">SURGING <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Dalam </span><span lang="EN-US">suatu</span><span lang="EN-US"> keadaan tertentu sebuah pompa sentrifugal dapat mengalami keadaan
yang tidak stabil, dimana kapasitas berubah-ubah sehinggamerupakan suatu
pulsasi (berdenyut-denyut). Gejala ini disebut <i>surjing</i>.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Titik D adalah titik design yaitu titik /keadaan dimana pompa
direncanakan akan bekerja. Misalkan pompa sedang mengisi sebuah tangki atau
mengalirkan suatu fluida pada suatu sistem. Jika kebutuhan sistem bertambah
sedangkan putaran pompa konstan, maka pompa akan memberikan kapasitas yang
lebih besar, sedangkan Head (tekanan) menurun. Dengan demikian maka keadaan
kerja pompa dari D bergeser ke kanan, ke arah B. ika kebutuhan berkurang lagi,
maka kapasitas pompa berkurang dan Headnya naik ketitik P. Jika kebutuhan terus
berkurang maka tekanan jadi menurun, dan dengan demikian aliran mulai berbalik
dari sistem kedalam pompa. Dalam keadaan ini kapasitas akan menjadi nol.(pompa
bekerja pada titik S).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Jika hal ini terjadi maka pompa akan mencoba mulai mengalirkan
fluida lagi tetapi tekanan yang dihasilkan tidak dapat menanjak dengan cepat
menurut lengkungan SP, akan tetapi secara langsung memberikan aliran pada head
yang sama besar dengan titik S yaitu pada titik B.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Penambahan fluida
(penambahan kapasitas(Q)), akan menyebabkan tekanan naik dengan cepat, sehingga
akan bergeser dari B ke P; sehingga peristiwa diatas akan terulang lagi dan
pompa berhenti mengalirkan fluida lagi pada titik S. Peristiwa ini akan
berlangsung terus sampai peristiwa yang menyebabkanya hilang.Titik P disebut
titik pilsasi (surging point).</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Dalam sistem pompa yang
sesungguhnya surjing akan terjadi pada kondisi dan keadaan sebagai berikut:</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pompa mempunyai kurva H-Q yang
naik sampai harga puncak, dan jika aliran dibesarkan terus kurva H-Q akan turun
kembali.</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pada jalur pipa ada tangki zat
cair atau ada fasa gas di dalam aliran.</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Katup pengatur aliran dipasang
pada sebelah hilir tangki zat cair atau fasa gas.</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Cara pencegahannya :<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Untuk mengatasi surjing dapat dilakukan dengan cara sebagai berikut:</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pipa isap dibuat sependek
mungkin serta mengerangi belikan-belokan agar kerugian gesek dari fluida bisa
dikurangi.</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pipa isap dibenamkan agak dalam
(kurang lebih 1 meter) agar tidak ada udara yang masuk terisap dalam pompa.</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Dengan memasang katup pengatur
agar aliran air bisa diatur.</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Antara inlet pompa dengan belokan
terdekat sebaiknya diberikan pipa lurus agar aliran yang masuk ke dalam kipas
memiliki kecepatan yang merata.</span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black;">Sumber :</span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue;">
“Dasar-Dasar Pompa dan Perencanaan”oleh JOHN B.MANGA</span></i><i><span style="color: blue;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><i><u><span lang="EN-US">GAMBAR INSTALASI TURBIN FRANCIS<o:p></o:p></span></u></i></b></div>
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<b><i><u><span lang="EN-US">KETERANGAN:<o:p></o:p></span></u></i></b></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Manometer<span> </span><span> </span>:
Untuk mengukur tekanan ketinggian</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Neraca<span> </span><span> </span>:
Untuk mengukur beban</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tuas pengatur<span> </span>: Untuk mengubah sudut sudu pengarah</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Reservoir<span> </span><span> </span>:
Tempat penampungan fluida</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pompa<span> </span><span> </span>:
Untuk memindahkan air dari reservoir ke turbin melalui pipa</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Katup<span> </span><span> </span>:
Untuk mengatur debit air yang keluar dari pompa</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Motor<span> </span><span> </span>:
Untuk memutar pompa</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Saklar On-Off</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pipa<span> </span><span> </span>: Untuk mengalirkan air</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Rumah keong <span> </span>: Untuk mendistribusikan
tekanan air yang ke dalam sudu pengarah</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kran air<span> </span><span> </span>: Untuk mengeluarkan air yang mengendap
dalam rumah keong</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Beban</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Belt<span> </span><span> </span>: Untuk mentransmisikan putaran ke
Tachometer</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tachometer<span> </span><span> </span>: Untuk mengukur jumlah putaran persatuan
waktu</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">FOTO INSTALASI TURBIN FRANCIS</span></b></div>
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<span><v:shape alt="TF-depan" id="Picture_x0020_27" o:spid="_x0000_i1034" style="height: 192pt; visibility: visible; width: 365.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="TF-depan" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image050.jpg">
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<span lang="EN-US">Tampak Depan</span></div>
<div align="center">
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<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 205.55pt;" width="274">
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<v:imagedata o:title="Pompa-TF" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image051.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Motor,Pompa,Katup</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 202.15pt;" width="270">
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<v:imagedata o:title="TF" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image052.jpg">
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<span lang="EN-US">Instalasi Pipa</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Instalasi Turbin Francis</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Turbin Francis,Poros,Kopling,Cakram</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Pembahasan Umum<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Jenis Material Propeller
pada kapal Titanic<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ketika <i>Olimpiade</i> dimulai pada tahun1911, baling-balingnya
diambil gambarnya dan ini dikenal foto juga menunjukkan baling-baling turbin
yang digerakkan oleh pusat sebagai seorang-berbilah empat casting. Dalam <i>kasusnya
Britannic,</i> tidak hanya adalah sebuah baling-baling berbilah empat periode
terlihat dalam foto, tetapi propeller ini juga hari ini terlihat pada
kecelakaan. Namun, pada saat ini, tidak ada foto yang diketahui tampaknya ada <i>menunjukkan's</i>
baling-baling <i>Titanic</i> di tempat dan, mengingat bahwa pusat baling-baling
tidak terlihat pada kecelakaan, ini menimbulkan pertanyaan menarik. </span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape alt="http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/images/chirn_dock.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1030" style="height: 249pt; visibility: visible; width: 375pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="chirn_dock" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image054.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada musim panas tahun 1924, setelah merekam kecepatan rata-rata
mengesankan pada persimpangan yg menuju ke timur, pergi ke</span><span lang="EN-US"> Olimpiade <span>Southampton
dermaga kering mengambang (atau "dok mengambang") untuk pembersihan
rutin.</span> <span>The pusat baling-baling
berbilah empat diinstal selama mereparasi pasca-perang dia adalah jelas
terlihat.</span> <span>Berikut</span> <span>gadis pelayaran's</span> Leviathan <span>tahun sebelumnya, persaingan persahabatan
antara dua liners sedang pada puncaknya dan, setelah meninggalkan</span> <span>New York pada hari yang sama,</span>
Olimpiade <span>dikalahkan rata-rata
kecepatan's</span> Leviathan <span>dari
22,65 knot.</span> <span>('s Koleksi Author)</span>
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Dari segi efisiensi: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">A-pisau baling-baling tunggal akan menjadi paling efisien - jika getaran
bisa ditoleransi.</span><span lang="EN-US"> <span>Jadi, untuk mendapatkan tingkat yang dapat diterima saldo dengan kurang
getaran banyak, sebuah baling-baling berbilah dua, praktis berbicara, adalah
yang paling efisien.</span> <span>Seperti
pisau ditambahkan, menurunkan efisiensi, tetapi begitu juga tingkat getaran.</span>
<span>baling-baling Kebanyakan dibuat dengan
tiga bilah sebagai kompromi untuk getaran, ukuran yang nyaman, efisiensi, dan
biaya.</span> <span>Perbedaan efisiensi
antara dua-tiga-berbilah propeller dan dianggap kurang penting dibandingkan
perbedaan getaran.</span> <span>Hampir semua
baling balap saat ini baik tiga-atau empat-berbilah.</span> <sup>6</sup> </span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none; margin-left: 8pt;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 368.5pt;">
<td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; height: 368.5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 410.25pt;" valign="top" width="547">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<v:shape alt="http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/images/chirn_table.gif" id="_x0000_s1072" style="height: 369.2pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: -6.4pt; margin-top: 0.45pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 411.25pt; z-index: -3;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="chirn_table" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image055.gif">
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</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Olimpiade <span>Spesifikasi Propeller Kelas, 1911-25.</span>
<span>Sumber termasuk "notebook
Andrews," kata Harland & Wolff rekayasa notebook, serta spesifikasi
propeller Britannic, yang sebagian dikonfirmasi oleh entri Teknik, Februari
1914.</span> <span>Selain itu, chief
engineer Thearle memberikan spesifikasi pusat baling-baling dan sayap untuk</span>
Olimpiade <span>pada awal 1925.</span> <span>Ini telah diasumsikan bahwa mengacu pada
konfigurasi baling-baling setelah perang mereparasi pos di 1919-1920.</span> <span>Jumlah pusat baling-baling pisau pada</span>
Olimpiade <span>sebagai dilengkapi selama
mereparasi ini sudah dikonfirmasi oleh catatan fotografi, termasuk foto-foto
dalam pengecoran pada bulan September 1919 dan di tempat 1923-24 dan
seterusnya.</span> <span>Sebuah dokumen
mirip dengan entri registry Inggris, memberikan spesifikasi teknis olimpiade,
dicetak setelah 1921 tetapi sebelum 1928, merujuk kepada's baling-baling</span>
Olimpiade <span>karena mereka mungkin
dilakukan post-1925.</span> <span>Mungkin
mereka kemudian diubah lagi, tetapi pada saat ini ini tidak diketahui.</span> <span>Meskipun perubahan dengan spesifikasi
propeller pusat untuk kapal ini, akhirnya pusat baling-baling dipasang pada
kedua</span> Britannic <span>dan</span>
Olimpiade <span>memiliki spesifikasi yang
identik dengan yang asli dipasang pada</span> Olimpiade <span>pada tahun 1911.</span> <span>Tampaknya
Harland & Wolff telah menemukan desain optimal dan tidak dapat memperbaiki
itu, meskipun mereka tidak tahu bahwa pada saat itu.</span> <span>Memang, sangat mirip dengan yang dilengkapi
baling-baling onboard White Star's</span> Majestic <span>di tahun 1920-an.</span> <span>kapal
itu memiliki empat-didorong baling-baling dengan empat bilah turbin, diameter
16 kaki, 5 inci, pitch dari 15 kaki dan seluas 119 meter persegi, berputar pada
180 putaran per menit dengan kecepatan layanan yang dirancang nya.</span> <span>(Lihat juga Chirnside, Mark:.</span> RMS
Titanic Olimpiade Suster, <span>Tempus
Publishing, 2004)</span> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Mungkin telah terjadi
bahwa pusat baling-baling <i>Olimpiade tiga</i> berbilah-membayar harga untuk
meningkatkan efisiensi dengan mengorbankan getaran meningkat, sehingga
pembangun kapal kemudian kembali ke-berbilah satu empat. <i>Britannic</i> pasti
punya-berbilah satu empat. baling-baling nya dipasang setelah pembuat kapal
memiliki 18 bulan mengalami beberapa operasi <i>Olimpiade</i> dan tiga-berbilah
satu, jadi tentu pengaturan tampaknya tidak memenuhi harapan. Semua ini, tentu
saja, tidak akan diketahui ketika <i>Titanic</i> sedang diselesaikan pada bulan
Februari 1912, atau ketika <i>Olimpiade</i> kembali ke pembuat kapal pada akhir
1912. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tidak ada foto <i>diketahui's</i>
propeler <i>Titanic</i> di tempat (seperti yang sering terjadi, banyak foto
mengaku sebagai <i>Titanic</i> sebenarnya <i>Olimpiade).</i> Rekaman fotografi
karena itu tidak ada bantuan kepada kami. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Sebagai samping, ada satu
gambar yang menarik yang dilengkapi <i>Titanic</i> selama-hingga akhir
pertengahan Januari 1912. <sup>7</sup> ini muncul untuk
menunjukkan-baling-baling berbilah empat di samping dermaga kering Thompson,
istirahat dengan sendirinya pada platform floating <i>crane.</i> Mengapa itu
ada di sana pada saat itu, atau untuk apa kapal itu mungkin awalnya
dimaksudkan, adalah subjek spekulasi. Sebaliknya, tidak spekulatif untuk
menyatakan bahwa ada sumber primer, tampaknya memberikan set akurat spesifikasi
propeller untuk <i>Titanic,</i> yang mengidentifikasi pusat baling-baling
sebagai seorang-berbilah satu tiga. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Mungkin terjadi bahwa
dokumen lain akan muncul di masa depan, sumber ini bertentangan, dan merekam
bahwa <i>Titanic</i> memang dilengkapi dengan baling-baling berbilah
pusat-empat - seperti sejarawan percaya selama ini. Namun, mengingat fakta
bahwa-baling-baling berbilah tiga juga telah didokumentasikan, tampaknya
satu-satunya cara untuk menyatakan dengan pasti apa pusat baling-baling <i>yang
Titanic</i> akan berharap bahwa metode yang dapat ditemukan untuk memeriksanya
di tempat pada kecelakaan. Sampai saat itu, atau sampai foto diverifikasi
ditemukan, maka akan menjadi lain dari misteri <i>abadi's Titanic.</i> </span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape alt="http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/images/chirn_olympic_prop.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_5" o:spid="_x0000_i1029" style="height: 231pt; visibility: visible; width: 178.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="chirn_olympic_prop" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image056.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Olimpiade <span>menjalani perbaikan tahunan di Januari 1929.</span>
<span>Pada saat ini, nada suara
baling-baling sayap telah meningkat menjadi sebanyak 36 kaki, 9 inci.</span> <span>Ukuran kapal ditunjukkan oleh para pekerja
di buritan, sedangkan kotoran pelayanan berlayar di laut ini terlihat dengan
cat tersebut.</span> <span>Foto</span>
Olimpiade <span>'s buritan juga dapat
tanggal dengan memeriksa jumlah baris dari paku keling sekitar lengkungan di
bagian atas aperture baling-baling pusat; ada awalnya empat baris paku keling,
namun setelah frame buritan baru dipasang selama musim dingin 1925-26, ini
meningkat menjadi lima baris.</span> <span>('s
Koleksi Author)</span> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="EN-US">pitch Propeller</span></i><span lang="EN-US"> adalah "jarak yang baling-baling akan bergerak dalam satu
revolusi jika itu bergerak melalui medium padat lembut tidak memungkinkan untuk
slip." Dengan kata lain, "apakah itu jarak perjalanan yang ideal
untuk satu revolusi dari baling-baling." selip tidak dapat dihindari untuk
baling-baling bergerak melalui air daripada medium, lembut padat. Sebagai
contoh slip, jika baling-baling memiliki pitch dari 33 kaki, kemudian dengan
slip khas sekitar 12 persen, itu benar-benar akan bergerak sekitar 29 kaki
melalui air. (Lihat Halpern, Sam. ", "September 18 Desember 2007,
diakses 1 Oktober 2007.) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<i><sup><span lang="EN-US">2's</span></sup></i><span lang="EN-US"> baling <i>Kelautan</i> memiliki diameter 22 kaki, 3 inci ketika dia
mulai beroperasi pada 1899, menurut laporan surat kabar yang muncul di <i>The
New York Times</i> pada tanggal 10 September 1899. Namun, bahkan jika liner
lain memiliki baling-baling dengan diameter yang lebih besar, <i>Titanic</i>
sayap propeller dan <i>Olimpiade</i> tentu salah satu yang terbesar dalam hal
diameter mereka, jika bukan <i>yang</i> terbesar. Sementara <i>Olimpiade</i>
dan sayap <i>baling-baling's Titanic,</i> dengan diameter 23 kaki, 6 inci
1911-1912, yang jauh lebih besar daripada liners lainnya, yang sama tidak dapat
dikatakan dari baling-baling utama mereka. <i>Lapland,</i> Harland &
halaman nomor's Wolff 393, memiliki baling-baling dengan diameter 19 kaki, 6
inci; <i>Laurentic,</i> halaman nomor 394, telah baling-baling sayap dengan
diameter 17 kaki, 6 inci dan baling-baling turbin-driven pusat dengan diameter
10 kaki. Pemeriksaan liners kecil lainnya yang dibangun pada saat itu
menunjukkan bahwa pusat baling-baling untuk <i>Olimpiade</i> dan <i>Titanic</i>
itu tidak berarti sangat besar. Bahkan, mereka akan rata-rata dalam hal
diameter mereka, jika dibandingkan dengan baling-baling dipasang pada kalimat
yang lebih kecil pada saat itu. </span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape alt="http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/images/chirn_olympic_dock.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_6" o:spid="_x0000_i1028" style="height: 204pt; visibility: visible; width: 187.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="EN-US">Dalam kering dermaga's
mengambang Southampton sekali lagi, beberapa waktu setelah mereparasi
1928-29,'s baling-baling</span></i><span lang="EN-US"> Olimpiade <i>yang terlihat
dalam pandangan unik.</i> <i>Meskipun sudut dan jarak dapat membuat sulit untuk
membedakan, hampir tampak seolah-olah penurunan diameter dan peningkatan pitch
yang terlihat pada baling-baling sayap dibandingkan dengan 1911 foto.</i> <i>Ada
beberapa "bercak" pada foto.</i> <i>('s Koleksi Author)</i> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="EN-US">Titanic<sup>:</sup>
Kisah Resmi.</span></i><span lang="EN-US"> Random House; 1997. Kotak ini termasuk
sejumlah dokumen asli yang berhubungan dengan <i>Titanic.</i> <i>Panduan</i>
termasuk lampiran memberikan "keterangan kapal yang dibangun oleh Harland
& Wolff." Sayap <i>propeller's</i> pitches <i>Titanic</i> yang keliru
diberikan sebagai 33 kaki, <i>sementara's</i> boiler <i>Olimpiade</i> dan
khusus propeler adalah konfigurasi nya mengikuti mereparasi 1912-1913. Tidak
ada angka diberikan untuk jumlah pisau. Telah diasumsikan bahwa sayap <i>propeller's</i>
pitches <i>Titanic</i> meningkat menjadi 34 kaki, 6 inci, tetapi pada
kenyataannya mereka tampaknya telah diubah lebih lanjut untuk 35 kaki. Lebih
relevan dengan baling-baling pusat adalah kenyataan bahwa dokumen ini berisi
daftar diameter yang sama persis dan pengukuran pitch yang terdaftar dalam
Harland & Wolff rekayasa notebook untuk <i>Titanic.</i> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Fakta bahwa nada
baling-baling sayap telah dimasukkan dalam buku tersebut, kemudian dicoret dan
diubah, tampaknya akan meningkatkan kredibilitas sosok tiga bilah untuk pusat <i>baling-baling's
Titanic.</i> Lagi pula, kalau itu dimasukkan salah maka itu akan menjadi
masalah sederhana untuk menyeberangi keluar dari "3" dan kemudian menggantinya
dengan "4." </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Meskipun disebut
"Andrews notebook," dokumen itu sendiri tidak tampaknya ditulis di
tangan yang sama dengan catatan yang Andrews dibuat pada pelayaran pertama <i>olimpiade</i>
pada tahun 1911, atau surat-surat pribadi yang ditulis sebelum itu. Memang, ada
entri di dalamnya yang pasca-tanggal kematian Andrews 'pada tanggal 15 April
1912. Hal ini berjudul "Menggambar Kantor Salin." Nama dengan yang
umumnya disebut telah digunakan begitu sering yang diberikan di sini untuk
mempermudah pengenalan. </span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_13" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" style="height: 237pt; visibility: visible; width: 182.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Jenis material yang digunakan pada propeller kapal Titanic adalah
Nibral <span class="hps">adalah paduan </span></span><span>Nikel, <span class="hps">Aluminium</span>, <span class="hps">Perungg</span></span><span lang="EN-US">u.</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span class="hps"><span>Nibral</span></span><span> <span class="hps">memiliki</span> <span class="hps">kekuatan</span>
<span class="hps">tarik</span> <span class="hps">hingga</span> <span class="hps">£
95.000</span> <span class="hps">psi</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">sangat</span> <span class="hps">tahan lama</span>. <span class="hps">Nibral</span>
<span class="hps">biasanya</span> <span class="hps">digunakan</span> <span class="hps">pada</span> <span class="hps">pertunjukan</span> </span><span lang="EN-US">kapal </span><span class="hps"><span>Ski</span></span><span> , <span class="hps">tinggi</span> <span class="hps">k</span></span><span class="hps"><span lang="EN-US">apal pesiar </span></span><span class="hps"><span>emancing</span></span><span> <span class="hps">Sport</span> <span class="hps">dengan</span> <span class="hps">tenaga kuda</span> <span class="hps">tinggi</span> <span class="hps">dan</span>
<span class="hps">rpm</span> <span class="hps">yang tinggi.</span> <span class="hps">Sebuah</span>
<span class="hps">panduan</span> <span class="hps">pemilih</span> <span class="hps">material</span>
<span class="hps">tersedia untuk</span> <span class="hps">membantu</span> <span class="hps">Anda</span> <span class="hps">menentukan</span> <span class="hps">bahan</span>
<span class="hps">cocok</span> <span class="hps">untuk aplikasi</span> <span class="hps">tertentu</span>. <span class="hps">Nibral</span> <span class="hps">adalah</span>
<span class="hps">perbaikan</span> <span class="hps">dan</span> <span class="hps">biaya</span>
<span class="hps">awal</span> <span class="hps">30-36</span>% <span class="hps">lebih</span>
<span class="hps">dari</span> <span class="hps">perunggu</span> <span class="hps">Mangan</span>.</span>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Jenis Material Pada
Sudu-Sudu Turbin Uap Kapal Titanic<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Superalloy berbasis nikel banyak digunakan di dalam mesin pesawat
terbang dan turbin gas pembangkit listrik sebagai material turbin blade karena
memiliki kemampuan untuk mempertahankan kekuatan struktur (creep, fatigue) dan
kestabilan permukaan (oksidasi, korosi) pada suhu tinggi. Paduan logam ini
diperkuat oleh larutan padat fasa matrik dan oleh presipitasi fasa </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>g</span></span><span lang="EN-US">’ berbasis Ni3Al. Perkembangan yang sangat berarti dalam peningkatan
kemampuan paduan ini pada suhu tinggi adalah sejak dimasukannya unsur-unsur
refraktori terutama Tungsten (W) dan Rhenium (Re) sebagai unsur paduan [1-4].
Akan tetapi, kandungan unsur-unsur refraktori yang tinggi di dalam paduan akan
meningkatkan ketidakhomogenan kimia karena segregasi mikro unsur-unsur ini di
dalam inti dendrit selama proses pengecoran dan meningkatkan kecenderungan
terjadinya fasa TCP (Topologically Closed Pack) yang merugikan pada suhu
operasi [4-7]. Perkembangan terakhir melaporkan bahwa Ruthenium (Ru) merupakan
unsur potensial yang dapat menekan terbentuknya fasa TCP pada suhu tinggi dan
meningkatkan kekuatan creep [8-10]. Ada beberapa kemungkinan yang menyebabkan
Ru mempunyai pengaruh yang positif pada paduan ini misalnya Ru menurunkan
tingkat segregasi unsur-unsur refraktori [6], meningkatkan kelarutan Re dalam
Ni[11], dan merubah rasio partisi unsur-unsur refraktori terutama Re diantara
fasa </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>g</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> dan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>g</span></span><span lang="EN-US">’[10]. Akan tetapi, kemungkinan terakhir masih merupakan masalah
yang diperdebatkan akhir-akhir ini karena adanya perbedaan hasil yang
ditunjukkan oleh para peneliti [10,12-13].</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_s1071" style="height: 160.3pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 86.1pt; margin-top: 102.2pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 241.95pt; z-index: 22;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US">Sehubungan dengan pentingnya Ru pada pengembangan
superalloy berbasis nikel, beberapa penelitian yang intensif bermunculan
berkaitan dengan karakteristik pemaduan unsur Ru [8-10,12-19].Tulisan ini
melaporkan pengaruh Ru terhadap struktur mikro dan evolusinya pada suhu tinggi
pada superalloy berbasis nikel berdasarkan hasil eksperimen.</span></v:shape></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>piamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5458366533732204239.post-82905347092700949262012-02-13T06:15:00.000-08:002012-02-13T06:15:48.989-08:00Tensile Test<link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_oledata.mso" rel="OLE-Object-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]>
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<![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">BAB I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>1.1<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Latar Belakang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 17.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 26.95pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Kebutuhan
akan material yang memiliki kekuatan tinggi semakin bertambah seiring dengan
perkembangan dunia industri. Dalam berbagai penggunaan, logam harus disesuaikan
dengan sifat-sifatnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 17.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 26.95pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 17.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 26.95pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Salah
satu sifat logam yang perlu diketahui adalah sifat kekuatan tarik. Untuk
mengetahui kekuatan tarik yang dimiliki oleh suatu logam, maka perlu diadakan
pengujian yang tepat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 17.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 26.95pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 17.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 26.95pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dengan
mengetahui kekuatan tariknya, maka suatu logam dapat digunakan sesuai dengan
penggunaannya pada konstruksi mesin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 17.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 26.95pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 17.85pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 26.95pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dalam pengujian tarik kita mengenal beberapa titik yang
dialami material sampai material tersebut putus. Titik-titik ini menentukan
batas-batas dari tegangan yang diperoleh dari material tersebut. </span><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Batas – batas
ini antara lain adalah batas proporsional, batas yielding, batas tegangan
ultimate dan batas dimana material mulai putus. Batas-batas inilah yang akan
digunakan untuk mengetahui sifat-sifat yang dimiliki oleh suatu logam
berdasarkan hasil pengujian tarik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>1.2<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Tujuan dan Manfaat Pengujian<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Tujuan
Pengujian<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Praktikan dapat membuat grafik Tegangan-Regangan<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Praktikan
dapat menunjukkan daerah luluh, proporsional, ultimate, dan break.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dapat mengetahui Tegangan regangan teknis dan
tegangan regangan sebenarnya<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Mengetahui
prosedur pengujian<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Mengetahui
sifat-sifat bahan terhadap beban aksial<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Mengetahui
pengertian keuletan dan kekuatan<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Manfaat
Pengujian<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Untuk mengetahui kekuatan tarik suatu bahan<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dapat mengklasifikasikan logam dengan mudah
berdasarkan sifat-sifatnya.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Mengetahui bahwa ssuatu material memiliki tegangan
yang berbeda pada setiap titik, sehingga dapat diramalkan posisi
patahnya.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dapat mengetahui hubungan antara tegangan dan
regangan.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Melihat dengan jelas fenomena yang terjadi pada
specimen logam yang sedang ditarik, dimana terjadi peregangan dan reduksi
penampang pada saat terjadinya necking.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>v<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Aplikasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Suatu industri dapat membuat
produk yang berkualitas dengan mengetahui sifat-sifat bahan dari hasil
pengujian tarik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Memudahkan suatu industri dalam
pengolahan dan perancangan suatu bahan sekaligus menekan biaya produksi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Pemilihan bahan dapat dilakukan
dengan mudah, sesuai data yang telah diperoleh pada uji tarik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">BAB II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">LANDASAN TEORI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">2.1 Teori Dasar<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Pengertian Tensile Test<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Pengujian tarik adalah suatu pengukuran terhadap bahan
untuk mengetahui ketangguhan suatu bahan terhadap tegangan tertentu serta
pertambahan panjang yang dialami oleh bahan tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Tensile test dimaksudkan untuk mengetahui kekuatan dari
suatu bahan logan yang diberi beban tarik, sehingga dalam proses uji tarik akan
terjadi regangan akibat dari tegangn yang terjadi pada bahan logam tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Pada proses pengujian kita dapat mengetahui tegangan yang
diberikan dan berapa panjang hasil regangan yang terjadi pada bahan, sehingga
diketahui panjang sebelum dan setelah pengujian. Selain itu, kita juga dapat
mengetahui sifat-sifat logam dan strukturnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dalam setiap uji tarik, dengan beban tarik yang diberikan
akan menghasilkan regangan tertentu berdasarkan tegangan yang diberikan. Dari
beban tarik yang diberikan, selalu terjadi regangan sampai pada perpatahan.
Tegangan yang menentukan batas kemampuan suatu logam terhadap beban tarik,
disebut tegangan ultimate. Tegangan ini diperoleh dari grafik tegangan regangan
yang diperoleh pada pengolahan data pengujian.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Hukum Hooke , Modulus
Elastisitas dan Diagram Tegangan-Regangan <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Hukum Hooke menyebutkan bahwa tegangan dan regangan masih
berbanding secara proporsional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Hukum Hooke dinyatakan dalam harga modulus elastisitas
yang akan dibahas pada teori selanjutnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 1px; position: absolute; width: 144px; z-index: -92;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1033 _x0000_s1034 _x0000_s1035" width="144" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 45px; left: 0px; margin-left: 156px; margin-top: 18px; position: absolute; width: 252px; z-index: -91;"><img height="45" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1036 _x0000_s1037 _x0000_s1038 _x0000_s1039 _x0000_s1040" width="252" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dimana , <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Modulus Elastisitas adalah perbandingan antara tegangan
dan regangan dan merupakan karakteristik dari suatu jenis logam tertentu. Makin
besar gaya tarik menarik antar molekul logam tertentu, maka makin besar pula
harga modulus elastisitasnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Setiap perpanjangan atau perpendekan suatu struktur
kristal dalam suatu arah tertentu, karena gaya searah, akan menghasilkan
perubahan gaya dimensi dalam arah tegak lurus dengan gaya tarik. Pada gambar
berikut terlihat adanya kontraksi dalam arah tegak lurus gaya tarik.
Perbandingan negative antara regangan melintang ly dan regangan tarik ez
disebut bidang poison v = -ly/ez.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Bahan-bahan mekanik dapat mengalami beban tarik(tekan)
dan beban geser bekerja 2 gaya yang sejajar. (lih. Gbr.) Tegangan geser </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">ζ</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"> adalah gaya Fs dibagi
dengan Lo batas buidang geser <span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">ζ</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"> = Fs/As.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Gaya geser menyebabkan adanya pergeseran sudut </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">α</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"> regangan geser, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">γ</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"> didefinisikan sebagai
tangens sudut </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">α</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"> tersebut dan
sama dengan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">(lihat gbr.).
Regangan geser elastis sebanding dengan tegangan geser : G = </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">σ</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">/</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">γ</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"> , dimana G adalah
modulus geser. Modulus geser kekakuan atau modulus geser berbeda dengan modulus
elastisitas E. Namun untuk regangan kecil berlaku hubungan E = 2G (1+v)., <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">sehingga perpanjangan akan berbanding terbalik dengan luas
penampang mula-mula. Secara matematis diperoleh Hukum Hooke :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dalam pengujian tarik, specimen yang digunanakna secara
khusus bentuknya menurut standar yang ditetapkan, pengujian ini dilakukan
dengan kecepatan pembebanan tidak samaatau kecepatan perpanjangan yang sangat
rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Apabila ditarik dengan sebuah beban P, maka specimen akan
berubah panjang menjadi (</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Δ</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">L + Lo).
Semakin besar beban maka specimen akan berubah panjangnya menjadi (</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Δ</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">L + Lo). Semakin besar
beban P yang diberikan, maka semakin besar pula perpanjangan yang terjadi dan
dalam pengujian ini akan terbentuk diagram dari rata-rata yang diperoleh untuk
beberapa beban yang tidak sama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Tegangan pada titik tersebut disebut titik proporsional
yang tertinggi dimana akhir berlakunya hokum Hooke. Apabila beban tarik
dip[erbesar, sampai titik B, kemudian beban tarik diperkecil dan diturunkan
sampai titik nol, maka perpanjangan specimen akan kembali ke titik semula (Lo)
karena pada tekanan tersebut terjadi regangan (</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">ε</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">) yaitu regangan plastis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Tegangan Pada titik B disusul tegangan elastis yaitu
tegangan tertinggi yang belum memberikan regangan plastis, beban plastis tidak
akan ditemukan, karena itu besarnya ditentukan dengan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><sub></sub></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">yaitu tegangan yang
diberikan 0,1 % </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><sub></sub></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">yaitu <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Tegangan maksimum terjasdi bila jbeban telah mencapai
titik o dinyatakan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><sub></sub></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">yang merupakan
tegangan tertinggi yang akan diberikan sebagai tekanan atau reaksi terhadap
beban. Regangan akan bertambah terus disertai dengan tegangan dan akhirnya
specimen akan patah di F. Tititk ini disebut Break point dan diberi batas </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">σ</span><sub><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">F</span></sub><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">. Selama
pembebanan berjalan dari nol sampai </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">σ</span><sub><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">o</span></sub><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">, panjang specimen berubah secara seragam menjadi kecil,
sedangkan panjang specimen akan bertambah. Di sebelah kanan titik v akan
terjadi pengecilan serempak. Pembesaran menjadi tidak seragam lagi, pengecilan
setempat itu disebut Necking.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Setelah specimen patah, akan terjadi pergeseran luas atau
reduksi penampang yaitu dari <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
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<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dimana :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span> </span>A<span> </span>=<span>
</span>Reduksi Luas Penampang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span> </span>Ao<span> </span>=<span> </span>Luas
mula-mula<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span> </span>Ax<span> </span>=<span> </span>Luas
pada keadaan x<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Diagram tegangan regangan diperoleh pada pengujian
tensile dan pertambahan panjang sedara konstan dari batang uji. Tegangan yang
memeberikan nilai 0,12 % biasanya disebut tegangan yield. Tegangan maksimal
apabila telah mencapai titik U, dinyatakan dengan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">σ</span><sub><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">u </span></sub><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">,yang
merupakan tegangan tertinggi yang dapat diberikan sebagai reaksi terhadap
beban. Pada waktu pembebanan berlangsung sampai pada terjadi abrasi, energi
yang dinyatakan dengan persamaan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Persamaan ini merupakan usaha yang dilakukan untuk
mematahkan specimen persatuan volume yang mengalami tegangan. Usaha ini pula
merupakan keuletan dar material tersebut. Tegangan yang sesungguhnya terjadi
setelah </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">σ</span><sub><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">1 </span></sub><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">adalah bukan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">σ</span><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"> sehingga :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 42px; left: 0px; margin-left: 209px; margin-top: 18px; position: absolute; width: 163px; z-index: -94;"><img height="42" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1029 _x0000_s1030 _x0000_s1031" width="163" /></span><!--[endif]--><sub><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span> </span></span></sub><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><br />
<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">dimana A<sub>1</sub>
= luasan sesaat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Hubungan
antara A dan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">σ</span><sub><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">s </span></sub><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span> </span>dapat diuraikan sbb :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Berikut ini adalah
diagram teganga-regangan beserta penjelasannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
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<v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/>
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<v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/>
</v:line><v:line id="_x0000_s1067" style='position:absolute;flip:x'
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<v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/>
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<v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/>
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<v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/>
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span>
<table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td height="8" width="24"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img height="334" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image033.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1041 _x0000_s1042 _x0000_s1043 _x0000_s1044 _x0000_s1045 _x0000_s1046 _x0000_s1047 _x0000_s1048 _x0000_s1049 _x0000_s1050 _x0000_s1051 _x0000_s1052 _x0000_s1053 _x0000_s1054 _x0000_s1055 _x0000_s1056 _x0000_s1057 _x0000_s1058 _x0000_s1059 _x0000_s1060 _x0000_s1061 _x0000_s1062 _x0000_s1063 _x0000_s1064 _x0000_s1065 _x0000_s1066 _x0000_s1067 _x0000_s1068 _x0000_s1069 _x0000_s1070 _x0000_s1071 _x0000_s1072 _x0000_s1073 _x0000_s1074 _x0000_s1075 _x0000_s1076" width="528" /></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<br clear="ALL" />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Keterangan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">E<span> </span>: <span> </span>Titik elastisitas yaitu kondisi bahan
sedemikian sehingga apabila beban<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span> </span>dihilangkan,
maka panjang specimen akan kembali ke posisi semula.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">P<span> </span>:<span> </span>Titik Proporsional, yaitu daerah
dimana berlakunya Hukum Hooke.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -45pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Y
: Titik Yield, yaitu titik dimana mulur mulai terjadi deformasi plastis, <span> </span>perpanjangan dan pengecilan luas
penampang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -45pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">U
:<span> </span>Titik ultimate, merupakan titik dimana
terjadi tegangan maksimum yang terjadi pada bahan yang ditarik. Dapat pula
disebut tegangan tarik maksimum yang dapat diterima oleh bahan, yang merupakan
awal terjadinya necking.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">B<span> </span>:<span> </span>Titik Break, dimana bahan telah putus
apabila terus dibebani.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Pada
pergeseran yang lebih tinggi, terjadi pergeseran tetap dari atom-atom dalam
suatu bahan disamping regangan elastis. Regangan tahap ini tak mampu balik.
Pada saat regangan semacam ini diperlukan pada proses pengerjaan bahan. Pada
pemakaian pendek, kita selalu menghindarkan terjadinya deformasi plastis
sehingga perhitungan desain dilandaskan pada tegangan di daerah elastis
(proporsional.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Sifat-Sifat Mekanik Bahan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Deformasi terjadi bila bahan mengalami gaya. Regangan
(strain) adalah besar deformasi per satuan panjang. Tegangan (stress) merupakan
gaya per satuan luas. Selama deformasi, bahan menyerap energi sebagai akibat
adanya gaya yang bekerja sepanjang jarak deformasi. Kekuatan (Strenght) adalah
besar gaya yang diperlukan untuk mematahkan atau merusak suatu bahan. Keuletan
(butility) dikaitkan dengan besar regangan permanent sebelum perpatahan.
Sedangkan Ketangguhan (roughness) dikaitkan dengan energi yang diserap bahan
sampai terjadi perpatahan. Selain itu, dijumppai pula berbagai cara untuk
mendefinisikan keuletan dan kekuatan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Berikut ini adalah table yang mencantumkan beberapa sifat
mekanik dari bahan, beserta dengan definisi, besaran dan satuannya :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Mulur<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Mulur
merupakan proses peregangan yang lambat. Laju mulur berkisar dari beberapa
persen pada tegangan atau suhu tinggi sampai kurang dari 10-4% /jam. Nilai
tersebut kecil tetapi harus diingat betapa pentingnya hal ini sewaktu mendesain
pembangkit tenaga uap atau reactor nuklir yang dipakai selama bertahun-tahun
pada suhu yang tinggi. Mulur juga penting pada turbin gas dan alat-alat yang
harus beroperasi pada tegangan dengan suhu tinggi tanpa penyusutan pennampang
sehingga tegangan tetap. Karena bilangan poison v berbeda antara 0,25 dan 0,5
nilai G mendekati 35 % dari E.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Modulus
Elastic selanjutnya adalah modulus curah , k. Modulus ini adalah kebalikan dari
modulus kompabilitas B dan sama dengan ph tekanan hidrostatik, per satuan
kompresi volum, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Δ</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">v/v :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Antara
modulus curah dan modulus elastisitas terdapat hubungan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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ShapeID="_x0000_s1078" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676448">
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 44px; left: 0px; margin-left: 240px; margin-top: 14px; position: absolute; width: 85px; z-index: -88;"><img height="44" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1078" width="85" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="ES" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Modulus
elastisitas turun dengan naiknya suhu. Hal ini dapat dilihat pada gambar
berikut untuk 4 jenis logam yang sering dijumpai :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dari gambar berikut terlihat bahwa pemuaian termal
menyebabkan turunnya harga dF/dA, dan demikian modulus elastisitasnya turun
juga. Diskontinuitas dalam kurva untuk besi pada gambar sebelumnya ditimbulakn
oleh adanya perubahan dari struktur butir kps ke struktur kpr pada 9,2 <sup>o</sup>
C. Wajar bahwa polimorf kps dengan tumpukan yang lebih padat memerlukan gaya
yang lebih besar untuk struktur kps. Perlu disebut bahwa logam dengan titik
cair yang lebih tinggi memiliki modulus elastisitas yang lebih tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Laju mulur bertahap-tahap berlangsung sampai logam putus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Pada gambar di bawah terlihat hubungan sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Laju mulur berimbang bertambah dengan meningkatnya suhu
dan tegangan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Peregangan putus juga bertambah dengan meningkatnya
variable-variabel tertentu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Waktu patah yang disebabkan oleh tegangan berkurang bila
suhu dan gaya meningkat.<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Fatik<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Fatik dapat diartikan sebagai keluluhan yaitu merupakan
skor logam yang timbul akibat pembebanan yang besar sehingga mengalami
perubahan pada sifat logamnya. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 17.85pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Kekuatan tarik dapat dijadikan sebagai pedoman dasar
untuk konstruksi yang mengalami perubahan pada sifat logamnya. Kekuatan tarik
dapat dijadikan pedoman dasar untuk konstruksi yang mengalami beban tarik
listrik. Jumlah static/siklus yang dipikul oleh logam akan turun dengan naiknya
variable yang mempengaruhi daya tahan fatik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Penyelesaian permukaan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Retak
fatik kerap kali berawal dari permukaan komponen bekas permesinan atau
ketidakpastian lain harus dihilangkan dan usaha ini berpengaruh sekali terhadap
fatik. Perlakuan permukaan akan meningkatkan umur fatik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Frekuensi siklus tegangan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Pengaruh
terhadap umur fatik hamper tidak ada walaupun penurunan frekwensi biasanya
menurunkan umur fatik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Temperatur<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Kekuatan fatik yang paling tinggi pada temperature rendah
dan berkurang secara bertahap.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Tegangan rata-rata<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Kondisi fatik dimana tegangan rata-rata tidak besar dari
tegangan luluh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<b><u><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Mekanisme Terjadinya Necking<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 17.85pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Necking adalah penyempitan luas permukaan specimen pada
saat ditarik atau pada saat perpanjangan. Pembentukan penyempitan setempat pada
benda uji mtarik menimbulkan keadaan tegangan tiga sumbu pada daerah
penyempitan setempat sebenarnya merupakan takik yang halus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 17.85pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Takik yang dikenai beban tarikan menghasilkan beban
transversal yang radial yang menyebabkan kenaikan nilai tegangan membujur yang
diperlukan untuk menghasilkan daerah plastis. Oleh karena itu, tegangan terjadi
rata-rata pada daerah penyempitan setempat yang diperoleh dari luas penampang
benda uji. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 17.85pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Mekanisme terjadinya necking adalah mula-mula salah satu
ujung specimen ditarik sampai mencapai titik proporsionalnya, yaitu daerah
diman hokum Hooke masih berlaku, sehingga specimen masih kembali ke panjang
semula, lalu beban tarik diperbesar sampai mencapai batas elastisitasnya.
Specimen dikembalikan lagi ke titik nol dan panjangnyapun masih dapat kembali
ke panjang mula-mula. Ukuran perubahan dimensi harus dipertahankan pada
temperature konstan. Bagaimanapun kecilnya, karena kenaikan temperature,
sebesar10<sup>o</sup>C cukup untuk melipatgandakan laju pemutusan sebagian
besar logam. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 17.85pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Namun beban tarik diperbesar lagi sampai melewati batas
elastisitasnya, maka specimen tidak dapat kembali ke titik semula, beban tarik
diperbesar sampai titik yield poin, yakni daerah transisi antara elastis dan
plastis. Specimen kembali ditarik hingga akhirnya mencapai titik U yakni
tegangan tarik maksimumnya. Pada saat inilah terjadi necking. Di saat melakukan
penarikan, necking mulai terbentuk seiring dengan pertambahan panjang, karena
itu pada necking terjadilah reduksi penampang dari Ao menjadi Ax pada akhirnya
tegangan menurun, regangan bertambah, dan specimen patah. Necking menyebabkan
kurva tegangan regangan secara umum tidak dapat naik lagi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 17.85pt;">
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</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Necking<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span> </span><b>Jenis-jenis Pembebanan</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Beban terpusat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Pada pembebanan ini
titik kerja <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">gaya</st1:city></st1:place>
pada batang dapat dianggap berupa satu titik, karena luas kontaknya yang sangat
kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Beban Terbagi Rata<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Pada
pembebanan ini besarnya beban dinyatakan dalam Kg/m<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Beban bervariasi Uniform<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Pada pembebanan yang
bervariasi secara seragam sepanjang batang, jenis pembebanan dan besarnya beban
yang diberikan pada batang menentukan langsung besarnya defleksi yang terjadi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">DISLOKASI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dislokasi
merupakan cacat yang terdapat pada struktur butir material, dimana posisi dari
ikatan atom mengalami perubahan susunan yang akan mengakibatkan penurunan
kekuatan dari bahan itu sendiri. Adapun dislokasi terdiri dari beberapa macam,
yaitu :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dislokasi titik, diman kekosongan terjadipada titik
tertentu, hal ini terjadi karena :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Ada atom yang hilang dalam kristal<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Hasil
penumpukan yang salah dalam kristalisasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Akibat energi termal yang meningkat, sehingga atom
melompat meninggalkan tempatnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dislokasi garis, merupakan<span> </span>sisipan satu baris atom tambahan dalam
struktur kristal. Disekitar suatu dislokasi garis terdapat daerah yang
mengalami tekanan dan tegangan, sehingga terdapat energi tambahan sepanjang
dislokasi tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dislokasi
ulir, menyerupai spiral dengan garis cacat sepanjang sumbu ulir. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Atom-atom disekitarnya mengalami
<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">gaya</st1:city></st1:place> geser.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";"><span>d)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Dislokasi
butir, terjadi karena adanya <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">gaya</st1:city></st1:place>
tekan dan tegangan yang akhirnya gaya-gaya ini dapat diuraikan menjadi tegangan
geser. </span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Comic Sans MS";">Hal ini disebabkan bidang atom bergeser terhadap bidang atom didekatnya
yang disebut slip.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">3.4.
Data dan Pengolahan Data<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="A">
<li class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">Data <o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
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<span lang="EN-US">Lo<span> </span>=<span> </span>190 mm<span> </span>Δ
L<sub>p<span> </span></sub>=<span> </span>1 mm</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Wo<span> </span>=<span> </span><span>
</span>19 mm<span> </span>P<sub>y<span> </span></sub>=<span> </span>20.000 N = 2030,82 Kg</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">To<span> </span>=<span> </span><span>
</span>2 mm<span> </span>Δ
L<sub>y<span> </span></sub>=<span> </span>4 mm</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">L<sub>f<span> </span></sub>=<span> </span><span>
</span>37 mm<span> </span>P<sub>u<span> </span></sub>=<span> </span>22.000 N = 2244,89 Kg<sub><o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">W<sub>1<span> </span></sub>=<span> </span><span>
</span>16 mm<span> </span>Δ
L<sub>u<span> </span></sub>=<span> </span>10 mm</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">T<sub>1<span> </span></sub>=<span> </span>1,25 mm<span> </span>P<sub>b<span> </span></sub>=<span> </span>18.000 N = 1836,73 Kg<span> </span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">P<sub>p<span> </span></sub>=<span> </span>4000 N<span> </span>Δ
L<sub>b<span> </span></sub>=<span> </span><span> </span>19 mm<sub><o:p></o:p></sub></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="A">
<li class="MsoNormal"><b><span lang="EN-US">Pengolahan Data<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
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<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="A"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="SV">Perhitungan
Tegangan Teknik dan Regangan Teknik (Rekayasa)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 117pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Batas Proposional</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tegangan Teknik (S<sub>p</sub>)</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Regangan Teknik (e<sub>P</sub>)</span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Reduksi Penampang (Q<sub>p</sub>)</span></div>
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<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1097" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:4.25pt;width:207.25pt;height:44.65pt;
z-index:-77'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image049.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1097" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676455">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 60px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 276px; z-index: -77;"><img height="60" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image050.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1097" width="276" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1098" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:14.15pt;width:75.55pt;height:15.85pt;
z-index:-76'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image051.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1098" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676456">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 21px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 19px; position: absolute; width: 101px; z-index: -76;"><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image052.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1098" width="101" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 117pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Batas Yielding</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tegangan Teknik (S<sub>u</sub>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1099" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:8.75pt;width:45pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-75'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image053.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1099" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676457">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 12px; position: absolute; width: 60px; z-index: -75;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image054.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1099" width="60" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1100" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:12.35pt;width:155pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-74'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image055.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1100" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676458">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 16px; position: absolute; width: 207px; z-index: -74;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image056.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1100" width="207" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Regangan Teknik (e<sub>u</sub>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1101" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:10.55pt;width:54pt;height:29.05pt;
z-index:-73'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image057.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1101" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676459">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 39px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 14px; position: absolute; width: 72px; z-index: -73;"><img height="39" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image058.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1101" width="72" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1102"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;margin-left:2in;margin-top:14.15pt;
width:98pt;height:30.75pt;z-index:-72'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image059.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1102" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676460">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 19px; position: absolute; width: 131px; z-index: -72;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image060.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1102" width="131" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Reduksi Penampang (Q<sub>u</sub>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1103" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:144.15pt;margin-top:12.35pt;width:112.3pt;
height:30.75pt;z-index:-71'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image061.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1103" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676461">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 16px; position: absolute; width: 150px; z-index: -71;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image062.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1103" width="150" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1104" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:4.25pt;width:207.25pt;height:44.65pt;
z-index:-70'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image063.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1104" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676462">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 60px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 276px; z-index: -70;"><img height="60" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image064.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1104" width="276" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1105"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;margin-left:2in;margin-top:14.15pt;
width:62.25pt;height:15.85pt;z-index:-69'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image065.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1105" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676463">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 21px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 19px; position: absolute; width: 83px; z-index: -69;"><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image066.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1105" width="83" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 117pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Batas Ultimate</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 99pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tegangan Teknik (S<sub>u</sub>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1112" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:9.8pt;width:45pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-62'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image067.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1112" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676464">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 13px; position: absolute; width: 60px; z-index: -62;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image068.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1112" width="60" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1106" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:12.35pt;width:157pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-68'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image069.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1106" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676465">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 16px; position: absolute; width: 209px; z-index: -68;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image070.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1106" width="209" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Regangan Teknik (e<sub>u</sub>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1107" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:10.55pt;width:51pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-67'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image071.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1107" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676466">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 14px; position: absolute; width: 68px; z-index: -67;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image072.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1107" width="68" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1108"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;margin-left:2in;margin-top:14.15pt;
width:108pt;height:30.75pt;z-index:-66'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image073.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1108" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676467">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 19px; position: absolute; width: 144px; z-index: -66;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image074.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1108" width="144" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Reduksi Penampang (Q<sub>u</sub>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1109" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:144.15pt;margin-top:12.35pt;width:113.35pt;
height:30.75pt;z-index:-65'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image075.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1109" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676468">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 16px; position: absolute; width: 151px; z-index: -65;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image076.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1109" width="151" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1110" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:4.25pt;width:207.25pt;height:44.65pt;
z-index:-64'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image077.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1110" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676469">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 60px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 276px; z-index: -64;"><img height="60" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image078.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1110" width="276" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1111" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:14.15pt;width:75.55pt;height:15.85pt;
z-index:-63'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image079.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1111" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676470">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 21px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 19px; position: absolute; width: 101px; z-index: -63;"><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image080.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1111" width="101" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 99pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 117pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>d)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Batas Break</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 99pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tegangan Teknik (S<sub>b</sub>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1113" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:8.75pt;width:45pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-61'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image081.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1113" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676471">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 12px; position: absolute; width: 60px; z-index: -61;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image082.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1113" width="60" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1114" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:12.35pt;width:155pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-60'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image083.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1114" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676473">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 16px; position: absolute; width: 207px; z-index: -60;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image084.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1114" width="207" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Regangan Teknik (e<sub>b</sub>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1115" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:10.55pt;width:49.95pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-59'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image085.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1115" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676474">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 14px; position: absolute; width: 67px; z-index: -59;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image086.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1115" width="67" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1116"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;margin-left:2in;margin-top:14.15pt;
width:99pt;height:30.75pt;z-index:-58'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image087.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1116" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676475">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 19px; position: absolute; width: 132px; z-index: -58;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image088.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1116" width="132" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Reduksi Penampang (Q<sub>b</sub>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1117" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:144.15pt;margin-top:12.35pt;width:112.3pt;
height:30.75pt;z-index:-57'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image089.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1117" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676476">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 16px; position: absolute; width: 150px; z-index: -57;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image090.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1117" width="150" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1118" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:4.25pt;width:207.25pt;height:44.65pt;
z-index:-56'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image091.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1118" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676477">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 60px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 276px; z-index: -56;"><img height="60" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image092.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1118" width="276" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1119" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:14.15pt;width:75.55pt;height:15.85pt;
z-index:-55'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image093.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1119" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676478">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 21px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 19px; position: absolute; width: 101px; z-index: -55;"><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image094.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1119" width="101" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 117pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>e)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Modulus Elastisitas</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1120" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='position:absolute;margin-left:117pt;margin-top:9.35pt;width:39pt;
height:33pt;z-index:-54'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image095.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1120" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676479">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 44px; margin-left: 156px; margin-top: 12px; position: absolute; width: 52px; z-index: -54;"><img height="44" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image096.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1120" width="52" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1121" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='position:absolute;margin-left:117pt;margin-top:9pt;width:137pt;
height:33pt;z-index:-53'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image097.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1121" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676480">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 44px; margin-left: 156px; margin-top: 12px; position: absolute; width: 183px; z-index: -53;"><img height="44" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image098.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1121" width="183" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 117pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>f)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Modulus Kelentingan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 99pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1122" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='position:absolute;margin-left:117pt;margin-top:11.4pt;width:71pt;
height:31pt;z-index:-52'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image099.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1122" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676481">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; margin-left: 156px; margin-top: 15px; position: absolute; width: 95px; z-index: -52;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image100.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1122" width="95" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1124"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;margin-left:117pt;margin-top:105.6pt;
width:52pt;height:17pt;z-index:-50'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image101.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1124" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676482">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 23px; margin-left: 156px; margin-top: 141px; position: absolute; width: 69px; z-index: -50;"><img height="23" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image102.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1124" width="69" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1123"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;margin-left:117pt;margin-top:51.6pt;
width:119pt;height:33pt;z-index:-51'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image103.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1123" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676483">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 44px; margin-left: 156px; margin-top: 69px; position: absolute; width: 159px; z-index: -51;"><img height="44" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image104.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1123" width="159" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="A"><ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="SV">Perhitungan
Tegangan Regangan Sebenarnya (Sejati)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 117pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Batas Proposional </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tegangan Sebenarnya (σp)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1125" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:8.75pt;width:81pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-49'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image105.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1125" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676484">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 12px; position: absolute; width: 108px; z-index: -49;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image106.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1125" width="108" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1126" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:12.35pt;width:76.95pt;height:16.85pt;
z-index:-48'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image107.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1126" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676485">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 17px; position: absolute; width: 103px; z-index: -48;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image108.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1126" width="103" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1127" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:3.2pt;width:112.85pt;height:16.85pt;
z-index:-47'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image109.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1127" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676486">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 150px; z-index: -47;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image110.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1127" width="150" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1128" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:13.25pt;width:105.7pt;height:26.75pt;
z-index:-46'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image111.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1128" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676487">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 36px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 18px; position: absolute; width: 141px; z-index: -46;"><img height="36" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image112.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1128" width="141" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Regangan Sebenarnya (εp)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1129" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:11.45pt;width:76.95pt;height:16.85pt;
z-index:-45'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image113.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1129" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676488">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 16px; position: absolute; width: 103px; z-index: -45;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image114.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1129" width="103" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1130" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:6.05pt;width:91.3pt;height:16.85pt;
z-index:-44'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image115.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1130" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676489">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 8px; position: absolute; width: 122px; z-index: -44;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image116.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1130" width="122" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1131" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:.65pt;width:61.55pt;height:15.85pt;
z-index:-43'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image117.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1131" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676491">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 21px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 1px; position: absolute; width: 82px; z-index: -43;"><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image118.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1131" width="82" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 117pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Batas Yielding </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tegangan Sebenarnya (σy)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1132" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:8.75pt;width:81pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-42'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image119.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1132" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676492">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 12px; position: absolute; width: 108px; z-index: -42;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image120.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1132" width="108" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1133" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:12.35pt;width:75.9pt;height:16.85pt;
z-index:-41'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image121.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1133" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676493">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 17px; position: absolute; width: 101px; z-index: -41;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image122.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1133" width="101" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1138" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:17.75pt;width:112.85pt;height:16.85pt;
z-index:-36'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image123.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1138" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676494">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 24px; position: absolute; width: 150px; z-index: -36;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image124.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1138" width="150" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1134" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:13.25pt;width:106.65pt;height:26.75pt;
z-index:-40'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image125.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1134" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676495">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 36px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 18px; position: absolute; width: 142px; z-index: -40;"><img height="36" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image126.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1134" width="142" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Regangan Sebenarnya (εy)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1135" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:11.45pt;width:99pt;height:15.85pt;
z-index:-39'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image127.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1135" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676496">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 21px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 15px; position: absolute; width: 132px; z-index: -39;"><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image128.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1135" width="132" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1136" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:6.05pt;width:92.35pt;height:16.85pt;
z-index:-38'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image129.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1136" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676497">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 8px; position: absolute; width: 123px; z-index: -38;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image130.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1136" width="123" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1137" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:.65pt;width:61.55pt;height:15.85pt;
z-index:-37'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image131.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1137" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676498">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 21px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 1px; position: absolute; width: 82px; z-index: -37;"><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image132.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1137" width="82" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 117pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Batas Ultimate</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tegangan Sebenarnya (σu)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1145" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:12.6pt;width:83.1pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-29'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image133.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1145" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676499">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 17px; position: absolute; width: 111px; z-index: -29;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image134.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1145" width="111" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1146" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:7.2pt;width:78pt;height:16.85pt;
z-index:-28'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image135.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1146" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676500">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 10px; position: absolute; width: 104px; z-index: -28;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image136.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1146" width="104" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1139"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;
margin-left:2in;margin-top:12.35pt;width:9.25pt;height:16.85pt;z-index:-35'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image137.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1139" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676501">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 17px; position: absolute; width: 12px; z-index: -35;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image138.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1139" width="12" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1140" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:3.2pt;width:112.85pt;height:16.85pt;
z-index:-34'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image139.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1140" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676502">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 150px; z-index: -34;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image140.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1140" width="150" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1141" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:13.25pt;width:98.5pt;height:26.75pt;
z-index:-33'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image141.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1141" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676503">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 36px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 18px; position: absolute; width: 131px; z-index: -33;"><img height="36" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image142.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1141" width="131" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Regangan Sebenarnya (εu)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1142" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:12.9pt;width:99pt;height:15.8pt;
z-index:-32'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image143.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1142" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676504">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 21px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 17px; position: absolute; width: 132px; z-index: -32;"><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image144.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1142" width="132" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1143" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:6.05pt;width:92.35pt;height:16.85pt;
z-index:-31'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image145.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1143" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676505">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 8px; position: absolute; width: 123px; z-index: -31;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image146.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1143" width="123" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1144" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:.65pt;width:61.55pt;height:15.85pt;
z-index:-30'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image147.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1144" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676506">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 21px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 1px; position: absolute; width: 82px; z-index: -30;"><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image148.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1144" width="82" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 117pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>d)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Batas Break</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tegangan Sebenarnya (σu)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1150" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:12.6pt;width:82.1pt;height:30.75pt;
z-index:-24'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image149.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
ShapeID="_x0000_s1150" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676507">
</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 17px; position: absolute; width: 109px; z-index: -24;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image150.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1150" width="109" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
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<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image155.wmz"
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 36px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 18px; position: absolute; width: 133px; z-index: -25;"><img height="36" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image156.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1149" width="133" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Regangan Sebenarnya (εu)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
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z-index:-22'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image157.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
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</o:OLEObject>
<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 21px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 17px; position: absolute; width: 130px; z-index: -22;"><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image158.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1152" width="130" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
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text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:6.05pt;width:92.35pt;height:16.85pt;
z-index:-21'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image159.wmz"
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</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 8px; position: absolute; width: 123px; z-index: -21;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image160.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1153" width="123" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
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id="_x0000_s1154" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:2in;margin-top:.65pt;width:60.55pt;height:15.85pt;
z-index:-20'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image161.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 21px; left: 0px; margin-left: 192px; margin-top: 1px; position: absolute; width: 81px; z-index: -20;"><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image162.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1154" width="81" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 126pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 117pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>e)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tegangan Sejati Maksimum</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image171.wmz"
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 24px; margin-left: 156px; margin-top: 87px; position: absolute; width: 141px; z-index: -17;"><img height="24" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image172.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1160" width="141" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="A"><ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="ES">Koefisien
Anisoptropis Plastis (Anisotropi Normal)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image177.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3"
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 83px; margin-left: 96px; margin-top: 4px; position: absolute; width: 127px; z-index: -15;"><img height="83" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image178.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1162" width="127" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="ES"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="A"><ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="FI">Ketangguhan
Suatu Bahan ( Kemampuan Menyerap energi Pada Daerah <o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Plastis).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 26px; margin-left: 312px; margin-top: 63px; position: absolute; width: 74px; z-index: -9;"><img height="26" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image184.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1168" width="74" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1167"
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 43px; margin-left: 312px; margin-top: 22px; position: absolute; width: 89px; z-index: -10;"><img height="43" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image186.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1167" width="89" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 43px; margin-left: 96px; margin-top: 39px; position: absolute; width: 124px; z-index: -7;"><img height="43" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image188.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1172" width="124" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>atau</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Deformasi Elastis </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Deformasi Plastis</span></div>
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ShapeID="_x0000_s1177" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676537">
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 22px; margin-left: 84px; margin-top: 42px; position: absolute; width: 99px; z-index: -1;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image203.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1178" width="99" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">BAB IV<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">HASIL PENGUJIAN DAN PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>4.1<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Analisa Hasil Pengujian<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Analisa Kondisi<span>
</span></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 18pt;">s </span><span lang="EN-US">dan</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 18pt;"> e </span><span lang="EN-US">Spesimen dari Awal Hingga Titik
Yielding<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Seperti yang telah dijelaskan pada teori dasar, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">s </span><span lang="EN-US">merupakan
tegangan yaitu beban aksial yang diberikan kepada suatu material<span> </span>untuk satu asatuan luas penampangnya,
sedangkan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">e</span><span lang="EN-US"> merupakan regangan yang dialami oleh struktur material yang dikenai
beban tersebut.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Titik yielding merupakan titik dimana awal terjadinya
peristiwa mulur (creep), dimana laju regangan bergerak lambat akibat adanya
fluktuasi tegangan.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Dari grafik tegangan regangan, dapat dilihat bahwa tegangan
dan regangan berbanding lurus, namun tidak seterusnya mengalami perbandingan
yang proporsional hingga ke titik yielding.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Pada awalnya tegangan dan regangan berbanding
proporsional, dimana hokum Hooke masih berlaku, yang ditunjukkan dengan harga
Modulus Elastisitas, sbb :</span></div>
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<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:rect id="_x0000_s1088" style='position:absolute;
left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:189pt;margin-top:4.05pt;width:1in;height:18pt;
z-index:-86' strokeweight="2.25pt"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 28px; left: 0px; margin-left: 250px; margin-top: 3px; position: absolute; width: 100px; z-index: -86;"><img height="28" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image204.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1088" width="100" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><b><span> </span>E</b> <b>=</b> </span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 18pt; line-height: 150%;">s/e</span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa tegangan dan regangan masih
bertambah secara proporsional, karena material masih memiliki sifat
elastisitas. Jadi hingga batas ini, material masih berdeformasi plastis.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Namun setelah melewati batas tersebut, pertambahan kedua
variable ini mulai menunjukkan harga yang tidak sebanding, dimana laju regangan
berlangsung lebih cepat ,sedangkan tegangan bertambah seperti biasanya. Hl ini
disebabkan oleh karena material sudah mulai melewati batas elastisnya dan
akhirnya mengalami deformasi plastis. Deformasi plastis ini diakibatkan karena
adanya dislokasi yang besar, sehingga lebih mempermudah jalnnya laju regangan,
walaupun tegangannya tidak bertambah dengan cepat.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Ketika mencapai titik yielding, maka material akan
berusaha untuk memberikan reaksi perlawanan terhadap tegangan yang diberikan
sehingga tegangan mengalami fluktuasi nilai dan laju regangan melambat.
Peristiwa ini dinamakan peristiwa mulur (creep). Pada kondisi ini kenaikan
nilai tegangan dan regangan semakin tidak porporsional.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Jadi dapat disimpulakan bahwa kondisi tegangan dan
regangan hingga titik yielding tidak seterusnya berbanding lurus secara
proporsional, namun halini terjadi pada batas tertentu saja dimana hokum Hooke
masih berlaku, dan seterusnya nilai regangan akan melaju dengan lebih cepat
sedangkan tegangan tidak menunjukkan kenaikan dengan nilai yang signifikan
pula. Hal ini disebabkan karena kondisi material setelah melalui batas
proporsional akan semakin melemah akibat adanya dislokasi yang semakin hebat
pada material tersebut, sehingga mengakibatkan peregangan yang semakin mudah
dari material tersebut.</span></div>
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<b><span lang="SV" style="font-size: 14pt;">4.2 Analisa
grafik<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="SV" style="font-size: 18pt;">“</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 18pt;">s</span></b><b><span lang="SV" style="font-size: 18pt;">s Vs </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 18pt;">e</span></b><b><span lang="SV" style="font-size: 18pt;">e”<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="SV">Dari grafik di atas dapat
dilihat perbandingan antara tegangan-regangan teknik dengan tegangan regangan
sebenarya (<b>“</b></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">s</span></b><b><span lang="SV">s Vs </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">e</span></b><b><span lang="SV">e”).<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="SV">Tegangan-regangan teknik
merupakanharga yang diperoleh berdasarkan hasil pengujian tarik yang dilakukan
pada specimen logam. Harga ini dipengaruhi oleh factor-faktor pada saat itu
juga, misalnya temperature sekitar dan usia dari material tersebut, dimana :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span>S= P/A<span> </span>dan<span> </span>e = L/</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">D</span></b><b><span lang="SV">L</span></b><b><span lang="SV" style="font-size: 18pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="SV">Nilai
tegangan regangan teknik tentu saja menunjukkan ketangguhan specimen pada saat
itu juga.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="SV">Sedangkan
untuk tegangan regangan sejati, merupakan suatu harga yang sengaja dioleh
sedemikian rupa sehingga dapat menunjukkan kondisi specimen yang siap digunakan
kelak pada konstruksi mesin, dimana :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>s = </span></b><b><span lang="SV">s ( e + 1 )<span> </span>dan<span> </span></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">e</span></b><b><span lang="SV"> = Ln ( e + 1 )</span></b><span lang="SV"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="SV">Nilai di
atas sengaja diperhitungkan untuk mennjaga specimen tersebut dari kemungkinan
terburuk yang akan dialami oleh material kelak di lapangan sebagai komponen
mesin, dimana kondisi yang dialaminya akan berbeda, misalnya saja temperature
dan usianya yang terus bertambah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="SV">Dari sebab
itulah dapat terlihat bahwa nilai yang ditunjukkan oelh tegangan regangan
sejati lebih besar daripada nilai tegangan regangan teknik, dimana dapat kita
lihat bahwa tegangan ultimate yang diperolehnya lebih tinggi daripada tegangan
ultimate pada tegangan regangan teknik. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa dalam
perancangannya kelak diperlukan ketangguhan yang sama seperti pada tegangn
regangan sejati agar menghindari kemungkinan buruk yang dapat dialami oleh
material dari specimen. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">BAB V<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>5.1<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">KESIMPULAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Diagram Tegangan-Regangan
merupakan diagram yang menunjukkan perbandingan antara kenaikan tegangan dan
regangan yang dialami oleh specimen yang telah diuji tarik.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Daerah luluh merupakan daerah
dimana creep terjadi, daerah proporsional merupakan daerah dimana hokum Hooke
masih berlaku, titik Ultimate merupakan titik yang menunjukkan tegangan
maksimum , dan titik break merupakan titik dimana material telah patah.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV"><span>3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV">Tegangan
regangan teknik merupakan tegangan regangan ideal sedangkan tegangan regangan
sejati merupakan nilai actual dari tegangan regangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV"><span>4)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV">Apabila
suatu material dikenai beban aksial, maka sifat sifat yang akan dipengaruhinya,
yaitu keuletan, kekuatan, elastisitas, ketangguhan, dsb.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV"><span>5)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV">Keuletan
merupakan sifat yang dimiliki oleh suatu material dimana menunjukkan
kemampuannya dalam menahan perpatahan, sedangkan kekuatan merupakan kemampuan
suatu material dalam menahan tegangan yang diberikan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>5.2<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">SARAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Praktikum dan proses asistensi
telah berjalan dengan baik, harap dipertahankan.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">DAFTAR PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span lang="ES">Pengetahuan Bahan Teknik</span></i><span lang="ES">, Prof. Ir. Tata Surdia MS. Met., E dan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="FI">Prof. Dr. Shiroku Saito. Pradya Pratama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="FI">Ilmu Teknologi Bahan, </span></i><span lang="FI">Lawrence H. Van Vlack, dan Sriati Djaprie<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="FI"><span> </span><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Erlangga, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Jakarta</st1:city></st1:place>.</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>piamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5458366533732204239.post-87505742516831516792012-02-13T06:13:00.001-08:002012-02-13T06:13:38.187-08:00metalografi<link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_oledata.mso" rel="OLE-Object-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]>
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<![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:shapedefaults v:ext="edit" spidmax="3074"/>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:shapelayout v:ext="edit">
<o:idmap v:ext="edit" data="1"/>
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</m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac><br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">BAB I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21pt; text-indent: -21pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.1<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Latar Belakang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pengetahuan metalografi pada dasarnya
mempelajari karakteristik struktural dan susunan dari suatu logam atau paduan
logam. Biasanya tidak melalui suatu keseluruhan potongan disebabkan oleh
pembawaan hydrogen atau logam.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Dewasa ini terdapat berbagai jenis
bahan yang digunakan pada proses manufaktur. Namun, sebelum diketahui atau
digunakan dalam industri atau bagian-bagian yang lain, karakteristik structural
atau susunan dari logam atau paduannya yang akan dipakai atau ditawarkan pada
industri untuk keperluan lainnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Dari hal inilah, orang mulai mencoba
untuk melakukan uji mmetalografi pada suatu material. Sehingga dengan cara ini
dapat diperoleh bahan dengan sifat-sifat yang sesuai dengan tujuan tertentu
untuk memenuhi nkebutuhan teknologi modern yang meningkat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Untuk itu, pengujian metalografi
sangat berguna dalam berbagai dunia industri, terutama pada industri logam dan
otomotif. Karena kebutuhan akan logam ini semakin meningkat, maka banyak
industri manufaktur menyuplai bahan logam yang ada di pasaran san telah melalui
berbagai proses pengujian bahan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21pt; text-indent: -21pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.2<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Tujuan dan Manfaat
Pengujian<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tujuan Pengujian</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Setelah melakukan pengujian metalografi praktikan dapat :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menjelaskan tujuan dari proses
metalografi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">menjelaskan langkah-langkah
pengujian Metalografi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mengetahui bahan dan alat yang
digunakan pada pengujian metalografi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mengetahui bentuk-bentuk fasa
dari logam.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">menganalisa ukuran butir dan
membbandingkan dengan grain size ASTM.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menjelaskan hubungan antara
struktur mikro dan karakteristik butir terhadap bahan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mampu melakukan pengujian
metalografi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Manfaat Pengujian</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Bagi Praktikan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Dapat mengetahui dampak
perlakuan panas dan media pendingin terhadap karakteristik logam.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Dapat melihat perbedaan setiap
fasa logam yang diuji.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Dapat mengoperasikan mikroskop
untuk pengamatan pada bahan yang lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Bagi Industri</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Dengan pengujian metalografi,
dapat diketahui suatu logam atau paduannya yang mempunyai kekuatan yang tinggi
dan ekonomis.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Dapat diperoleh bahan dengan
sifat-sifat yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan industri.</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">LANDASAN TEORI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">2.1 Teori Dasar<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Pengetahuan metalografi pada dasarnya
bertujuan untuk mempelajari struktur logam atau paduannya dalam hubungannya
dengan sifat fisik dan mekanik.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada metalografi yang diperoleh
dengan suatu analisa kimia dan metalografi logam atau paduannya dan
potongannya. Disebabkan oleh pembawaan heterogan dari logam tersebut. Pembawaan
ketidak homogenan dalam suatu logam lebih detentukan dengan macroetching dan
pemasarannya dapat dilakukan dengan menggunakan luas power mikroskopis, ini
dinotasikan oleh jenis metalografi data yang diperlukan atau dibutuhkan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pengamatan microetching dapat
memberikan gambaran kondisi dalam metal yang berhubungan dengan satu arah
lebih. Untuk hal-hal sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Crystalin Heterogencity, hadir
dan meluas yang tergantung pada jalannya solidifikasi akan tumbuhnya krystalin
dari logam atau paduannya.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Chemicalin Heterogencity,
disebabkan oleh tidak berisinya logam atau paduannya dan lokasi pemisahan dari
susunan kimia tertentu. Pemisahan serupa dapat dengan sengaja (karbon dalam
permukaan baja selama proses karburasi)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mechanical heterogencity,
timbul dari Coldworking atau setiap proses yang menimbulkan teganga-tegangan
permanent dalam logam yang dituangi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Selama proses makro suatu logam atau
paduannya terdiri dari tiga langkah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mendapatkan sample logam yang
sesaat untuk tujuan pemeriksaan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menyiapkan microetching
terhadap penampang yang boleh disiapkan atau belum disiapkan agar tidak
mengalami kesulitan nanti<b><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menyiapkan secara hati-hati
permukaan yang akan dietsa dan kemudian diperiksa (tidak selalu layak atau
perlu)<b><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Pemakaian macroetcing yang tergantung
pada tiga factor penting yaitu:</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Koreksi permukaan logam yang
akan dietsa, yaitu apakah tidak kasar, licin, atau dipoles.</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Komposisi kimia dari etsa yang
dipilih</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Lama waktu specimen yang dietsa
kebanyakan bagian penting dari sejumlah metalografi</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Reaksi-Reaksi
Pembentukan Fasa<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">Reaksi Austenit –
Martensit<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Daerah austeniot yang telah
bertransformasi menjadi martensit, membentuk lentikuler yang mudah dikenal
adalah dietsa atau distorsi yang ditimbulkannya pada permukaan logam yang
dipoles. Hal ini membuktikan bahwa jarum martensit terbentuk akibat proses
geser dan bukan proses difusi ataom karena regangan yang regangan yang besar
yang mengiringi perubahan volume transforasi tidak timbul. Luar martensit
terbentuk tenkuler merupakan akibat dari tegangan yang timbul dalam matrisk
oleh transformasi dengan mekanisme geser dan setara dengan efek serupa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Reaksi
Pembentukan Ferit dan Perlit<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada proses pemanasan system besi
karbon, besi murni bertambah 2 kali strukturnya sebelum mencair. Besi berubah
dari kpr menjadi kps pada temperature 912<sup>o</sup>C dan perubahan ini
berbalik pada temperature 1374<sup>o</sup>C dan terbentuk KPR lagi (besi<b>α</b>). Austenit akan fasa </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">g </span><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>merupakan larutan padat dari karbon dalam besi
KPR. Bila didinginkan sampai mencapai suhu dibawah 912<sup> o</sup>C atau akan
membentuk KPR, struktur ini disebut ferrit atau besi </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">a </span><span lang="EN-US">dan merupakan larutan
padat karbon dan besi </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">a.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Bila pendinginan berlangsung terus
baja menjadi magnetis sampai batas sedikit diatas batas kritis. Ferrit yang
terbentuk bertambah pada saat itu austenit yang masih ada akan bertransformasi.
Austenit sudah mengandung modul perlit yang halus, pada austenit homogen nukleasi
selalu terjadi pada batas butir ketika modul bertambah besar permukaan kontak </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">a </span><span lang="EN-US">dan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">b </span><span lang="EN-US">berambah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Selama proses pendinginan sampai
terbentuk perlit, austenit bertrasformasi dengan nukleasi pertumbuhan ferrit
sampai pada batas temperature transisi. Namun pada saat pembentukan ferit
masung mengandung komposisi austenit dalam jumlah sedikit. Pada kondisi ini
bila pendinginan berlangsung terus maka ferit + austenit transisi akan
bertransformasi menjadi ferit, bainit dan martensit tergantung pada
pendinginannya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Reaksi
Pembentukan Bainit<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Penelitian
pada transformasi isothermal dalam baja 1080 menunjukkan bahwa <span style="position: relative; top: 5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype
id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="75" o:preferrelative="t"
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="101" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1025"
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</xml><![endif]--><span> </span>berbeda untuk suhu di
atas dan di bawah kurva T-T. Di atas suhu tersebut nukleasi terbatas pada batas
butir austenit bermula. Di bawa <i>Rx</i>
tertunda karena pergerakan atom yang lamban, akan tetapi logam yang mengalami
pendinginan lanjut dengan mudah membentuk </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">a</span><span lang="EN-US"> dan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">S</span><span lang="EN-US"> yang
bernukleasi pada titik-titik cacat dalam butir-butir austenit menghasilkan
bainit. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Reaksi
pembentukan Sementit, Austenit, Ladeburit.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Austenit dinamakan juga fasa <b>γ </b>atau besi <b>γ </b>merupakan larutan padat antara karbon dan besi dengan sel
satuan FCC. Untuk paduan Fe<sub>3</sub>C, austenit hanya dapat stabil di
atas temperature 723<sup>o</sup>C tetapi untuk baja paduan Mangan,
austenitdapat terjadi secara stabilpada temperature kamar tergantung pada
kandungan Ni atau Mn. Sifat austenit sama dengan ferit yaitu bersifat
lunak..</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Ferit terjadi dibawah temperature
723<sup>o</sup>C, pada temperature ini terjadi pengintian sementit. Pada
temperature 723<sup>o</sup>C mulai terbentuk fasa perlityang sebenarnya
terjadi dari 2 fasa yaitu sementit dan besi <b>α </b>dari austenit sebelum fasa eutectoid yang disebut pra
eutectoid sementit.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">γ </span></b><span lang="EN-US">(kps)<b> </b>didinginkan menjadi<b> </b><span> </span><b>γ</b> +
C (Sementit + karbida)</span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Ladeburit terbentuk pada suhu
antara 723<sup>o</sup>C sampai ladeburit terbentuk bersama dengan sementit
dari 1130<sup>o</sup>C.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">α </span></b><span lang="EN-US">+ sementit + ladeburit </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">γ </span></b><span lang="EN-US">(kps)<b> </b>didinginkan menjadi<b> </b><span> </span>C + ladeburit</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Diagram TTT
(Time-Temperatur-Transformasi)</span></u></b><u><span lang="EN-US"> <o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:306pt;height:250.5pt' filled="t">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="334" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1026" width="408" /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="EN-US">Gambar : kurva pendinginan pada diagram TTT
(time-temperature-transformation)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Diagram TTT juga disebut diagram S atau diagram
transformasi isothermal. Dengan diagram ini dapat dilihat perubahan struktur
bila logam dibiarkan pada suhu konstan tertentu.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Untuk memperoleh struktur martensit, baja harus
dicelupkan dengan cepat sehingga kurva pendinginan tidak memotong kurva
transformasi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada kedua kurva TTT jelas bahwa sedikit di bawah
temperatur kritis A, laju transformasi rendah meskipun pada transformasi ini
mobilitas atom cukup tinggi. Hal ini disebabkan setiap perubahan fasa yang
timbul akibat factor permukaan ddan energi regangan. </span><span lang="DE">Jika temperatur dibawa ke lutut kurva, laju
transformasi meningkat. </span><span lang="EN-US">Terjadinya kelambanan pada
proses ini disebabkan pada waktu pembentukan bainit temperatur agak rendah. </span><span lang="DE">Pada bagian temperatur 250°C - 300°C
ternyata transformasi berlangsung sangat cepat. Untuk diagram fasa TTT hanya
dapat diperlakukan pada baja karbon rendah. Jika baja dicelup pada daerah di
bawah 200°C maka akan terbentuk martensit seiring baja tersebut dicelup dalam
media pendingin ini, dan pada suhu kritis terbentuk austenit stabil yaitu atom
mulai bergerak secara acak. Bentuk umum dari kurva transformasi-waktu-suhu
berbeda untuk jenis baja.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="DE">Perlu diketahui bahwa bentuk
dari kurva waktu-suhu-transformasi berbeda untuk jenis baja yang berlainan.
Tergantung pada kadar karbon unsur paduan,dan faktor besar butir austenit. </span><span lang="EN-US">Untuk itu agak sulit untuk membentuk martensit pada pencelupan baja
lipoeutektoid. Baja karbon dengan komposisi eutectoid lebih mudah dikeraskan.<span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span>Diagram Fasa Fe-Fe<sub>3</sub>C<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span><span> </span>Diagram
fasa ini menjadi landasan untuk laku panas. Bila bagian 0%-1% karbon pada
gambar ditutupi, maka kita akan mendapatkan diagram fasa sebelumnya. Komposisi
eutectik terdapat pada 4,3% (berat) karbon (17% atom) dan suhu eutctik ini
karena rata-rata mengandung 2,5%-4% C. Titik cair relati rendah dan besi cor
mempunyai karakteristik coran dan proses yang baik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75"
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Diagram Fe-Fe3C</span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>g</span></span><span> yang hanya besi dapat menampung 2,1% (berat) (9%
atom) karbon. Atom karbon ini larut secara difusi dalam besi-baja berdasarkan
fasa larutan padat ini. Karena baja mengandung kurang dari 1,2% karbon, baja
dapat mempunyai fasa tunggal pada proses penempaan atau pengerjaan panas
lainnya yaitu di daerah sekitar 4100<sup>o</sup>C-1270<sup>o</sup>C. pada
daerah yang kaya besi (799% Fe dan <1% C). Diagram Fe-Fe<sub>3</sub>C
berbeda dengan diagram lainnya yang pernah dibahas. Perbedaan ini timbul karena
besi adalah polimer dengan fasa kpf dan kps. Karena kita tidak mempelajari
pencairan dan solidifikasi baja secara khusus. Diagram antara suhu 700<sup>o</sup>C-900<sup>o</sup>C
dan daerah karbon antara 0<sup>o</sup>C-1<sup>o</sup>C bagian inilah yang
terpenting bagi ahli teknik karena mikrostruktur baja dapat diatur dan
disesuaikan dengan keinginan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.2.</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Teori pengamplasan,
pemolesan, dan etsa<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">pengamplasan<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">pengamplasan adalah sutau proses pengerjaan logam dengan
tujuan mengurangi kerusakan permukaan yang terjadi dari proses pemotongan
dengan gergaji. Pengerjaan<span> </span>pengamplasan
sebaiknya dilakukan dengan 1 arah agar diperoleh permukaan logam yang baik.
Amplas yang digunakan mulai dari yang kasar sampai yang halus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">pemolesan<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">pemolesan adalah suatu proses pengerjaan yang bertujuan untuk
menghilangkan bagian-bagian yang terdeformasi yang timbul dari hasil
langkah-langkah sebelumnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Pemolesan dilakukan dengan tangan dimana arah tegak lurus dengan
arah pengamplasan. Selama proses pemolesan dianjurkan agar specimen digerakkan
kedepan dan<span> </span>kebelakang seperti partikel
mengalami absorbsi dapat didistribusikan secara merata diatas piringan
pemolesan. Selain itu pemolesan dilakukan berputar untuk mencegah efek komet,
setiap selesai pemolesan, specimen di cuci dengan menggunakan alcohol dan
dikeringkan dengan mengguanakan udara.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">etsa<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Etsa
adalah suatu proses pencelupan specimen dengan tujuan memperoleh specimen yang
bersih. Etsa biasanya dilakukan diatas bagian yang telah diamplas, dan dipoles.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Umumnya
reaksi yang sesuai untuk etching metalografi specimen terdiri dari organic dan
anorganik acid serta alkolis. Dari beberapa sifat dan wujud yang kompleks dalam
larutan dengan beberapa bahan pelarut seperti air, alcohol, gliserin, atau
campuran pelarut-pelarut lain. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Aktivitas
dan perilaku umum dari etsa metalografi mempunyai hubungan dengan salah satu
karaktersitik sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Hidrogen Ion concentration<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Hidrocid Ion concentration <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Kemampuan sifat memadai yang diterima salah satu atau lebih
kemampuan structural. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Etsa
biasanya dilakukan pada permukaan specimen yang telah disiapkan dengan cara
pencelupan atau dibasahi.<span> </span>Waktu etsa
suatu specimen adalah penting dalam penentuan pilihan etsa yang digunakan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Reagen etsa yang biasa dipakai
diantaranya:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Asam Nitrat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Komposisinya<span> </span>: Asam Nitrat 2 ml, Alkohol (95%) 98 ml<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 153pt; text-indent: -99pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Pemakaiannya<span> </span>:
Untuk baja karbon, baja paduan rendah dan sedang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 153pt; text-indent: -99pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Waktu mengetsa<span> </span>:
beberapa detik sampai satu menit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Asam Pikral<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Komposisinya<span> </span>: Asam Pikral 4 gr, Alkohol (95%) 96 ml<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 153pt; text-indent: -99pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Pemakaiannya<span> </span>:
Untuk baja karbon dalam keadaan normal, dilunakkan, dikeraskan (disepuh) atau
distemper. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">NaOH + H</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">2</span><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">O</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">2</span><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Komposisinya<span> </span>: NaOH sebagai dasar <span> </span>H</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">2</span><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">O</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">2 </span><span lang="EN-US">beberapa</span><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"> tetes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 153pt; text-indent: -99pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Pemakaiannya<span> </span>:
Untuk tembaga dan paduannya <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 153pt; text-indent: -99pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Waktu mengetsa<span> </span>: Sampai
warna abu-abu<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Langkah-langkah mengetsa:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Diteteskan beberapa tetes reagen etsa kedalam cawan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Dicelupkan permukaan specimen yang akan diperiksa pada reagen
etsa. Specimen dijepit dengan tang kecil. Waktu pencelupan beberapa detik
sampai warna abu-abu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Dibersihkan dengan air bersih yang mengalir dan selanjutnya
dibersihkan dengan alcohol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>d.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Specimen dikeringkan dengan menggesekkan kapas bersih dan
disemprot dengan udara panas, selanjutnya specimen diperiksa struktur mikronya
di bawah mikrsoskop.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">BAB IV<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">PERHITUNGAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US">4.1. Penentuan Persen Fasa (Spesimen Dengan
Media Pendingin Air Garam)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:group id="_x0000_s1027" style='position:absolute;
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 42px; margin-left: 84px; margin-top: 3px; position: absolute; width: 408px; z-index: -5;"><img height="42" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1027 _x0000_s1028 _x0000_s1029 _x0000_s1030" width="408" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 62.95pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -26.95pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Ctt : titik yang mengenai fasa tertentu dihitung satu dan
yang mengenai tepi fasa<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 62.95pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -26.95pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>dihitung 1/2.
Jumlah titik total yang digunakan untuk penentuan yang cukup<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 62.95pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -26.95pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>akurat
setidaknya 100 titik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Penentuan
Persan Fasa Ferit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:153.75pt;height:30.75pt' o:ole="">
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o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1028" width="205" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1028"
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Penentuan
Persen Fasa Perlit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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z-index:-3'>
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ShapeID="_x0000_s1032" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676325">
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 41px; left: 0px; margin-left: 91px; margin-top: 34px; position: absolute; width: 336px; z-index: -3;"><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1032" width="336" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">4.2 Penentuan Ukuran Butir<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 17.85pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Ukuran
butir dinyatakan dengan besaran tertentu, misalnya standar dari ASTM, yaitu
ASTM Grain Size Number (n) yang dinyatakan sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 37px; margin-left: 84px; margin-top: 9px; position: absolute; width: 103px; z-index: -2;"><img height="37" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image021.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1033" width="103" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Keterangan :<span> </span>
n<span> </span>=<span> </span>ASTM Grain Size Number (1-10)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span><span> </span>N<span> </span>=<span> </span>Jumlah Butiran Per inci Kuadrat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Ukuran butir
dapat ditentukandengan menggunakan metode lingkaran Hilliard sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image022.wmz"
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ShapeID="_x0000_s1034" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676328">
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 43px; left: 0px; margin-left: 67px; margin-top: 11px; position: absolute; width: 173px; z-index: -1;"><img height="43" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image023.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1034" width="173" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>Dimana : G<span> </span>=
Besaran Butir ASTM<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>L<sub>T</sub><span> </span>=
Total Keliling Lingkaran <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>= </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 150%;">p </span><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">x d (Cm)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>P<span> </span>=
Total Jumlah Perpotongan Lingkaran dengan Butiran<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>M<span> </span>=
Pembesaran (diketahui)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">L<sub>T</sub><span> </span>=<span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 150%;">p </span><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">x d <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>= 3,14 x 6,4 = 20,1 Cm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">P<span> </span>=<span> </span>28 Butiran<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; line-height: 150%;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">M<span> </span>=<span> </span>400 X<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 150%;">Jadi:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>G<span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1030" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:128.25pt;height:30.75pt'
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<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1030"
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style='width:36pt;height:15pt' o:ole="">
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style='width:30pt;height:14.25pt' o:ole="">
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span>
</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">BAB V<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">HASIL PENGUJIAN DAN PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>5.1<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Analisa grafik Fe-Fe<sub>3</sub>C<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1037" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:306.75pt;height:269.25pt'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image005.emz"
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<span>Diagram fasa Fe – Fe<sub>3</sub>C
menjadi landasan untuk laku panas kebanyakan jenis baja yang kita kenal. Bila
bagian 0%-1% karbon pada diagram Fe-Fe<sub>3</sub>C ditutupi, kita mendapatkan
diagram yang mirip dengan diagram fasa sebelumnya. Komposisi eutektik terdapat
pada 4,3% ( berat ), karbon ( 17% atom) dan suhu eutektik ini karena rata-rata
mengandung 2,5-4% karbon. Titik cair relatif rendah dan besi cor mempunyai
karakteristik coran dan proses yang baik. Yang kaya besi dapat menampung 2,1%
(berat) atau 9% (atom) karbon. Atom-atom karbon ini larut sampai interistisi
dalam besi KPS. Baja berlandaskan fasa larutan padat ini karena baja mengandung
kurang dari 1,2% karbon, baja dapat mempunyai fasa tunggal pada proses
penempaan atau pengerjaan panas lainnya, yaitu di daerah sekitar 1100°C sampai
1250°C. Pada daerah yang kaya Fe diagram ini berbeda dengan diagran lainnya
yang telah pernah di bahas. Perbedaan ini timbul karena besi adalah polimorf
dengan fasa kpr dan kps.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span>Karena kita tidak mempelajari
pencairan dan solidifikasi baja secara khusus disini, kita lewatkan ciri-ciri
daerah karbon kadar rendah diatas suhu 1400°C. Perhatian kita terutama
ditujukan pada bagian diagram antara 700°C-900°C dan daerah karbon antara
0%-1%. Bagian inilah yang terpenting bagi ahli teknik karena mikrostruktur baja
dapat diatur dan disesuaikan dengan keinginan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 24pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -24pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>5.2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Analisa Foto Struktur<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Spesimen Normal<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Fasa yang terbentuk :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Ferit (besi ά )</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada foto specimen, warna yang lebih terang adalah
ferit, dan butirannya besar dan fasa yang ada merupakan larutan padat
intrerself (sel antara) dengan atom karbon yang sangat liat dengan kata lain
karbon dalam ferit sangat rendah yaitu 0,05 %, sampai pada suhu 723<sup>0</sup>C
dan pada suhu kamar 0,08 % memioliki se satuan kubus (BCC) dan berada di bawah
temperature 9,2<sup>o</sup>C. Pada diagram besi karbida sifatnya lunak dan
tahan korosi.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Perlit</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Perlit yang terbentuk terdiri dari :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Perlit yang terbentuk strukturnya besar dengan sifat
keras, getas, butirannya besardan kasar. Biasanya terbentuk di bawah suhu 723<sup>o</sup>
C.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Ferit : bentuk strukturnya kesil dengan sifat keras,
getas, butirannya kecil, dan halus, terbentukakibat pendinginan yang cepat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Selain itu juga dari gambar dapat kita lihat bahwa
ukuran butiran-butirannya kecil serta terdapat celah-celah kecil diantara
butir-butir tersebut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Spesimen Dengan Media Pendingin
Air Garam<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 24pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Dari gambar foto specimen dengan
media pendingin air garam kita dapat melihat butiran-butirannya berukuran lebih
besar jika dibandingkan dengan gambar struktur butir normalnya. Selain itu juga
tidak terdapat celah diatara butiran-butiran tersebut, ini terjadi karena ukuran
butir-butir yang membesar yang mengakibatkan butiran-butiran tersebut saling
berdesak-desakan sehingga tidak terdapat celah diantara butir-butir tersebut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Dari gambar foto specimen dengan
media pendingin air garam kita dapat melihat warna sturktur butir dominan
berwarna gelap. Dimana seperti yang kita ketahui warna gelap dari butir adalah
fasa pearlit yang bersifat keras dan getas. Dan karena bentuk dari butir yang
besar serta berdesak-desakan antara yang satu dengan yang lain sehingga
kekerasan specimen inipun meningkat. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Bentuk atau keadaan struktur seperti
ini dengan sifat-sifatnya kita ketahui sebagai<span>
</span>fasa martensit yang keras dan getas namun memiliki kekuatan yang rendah
serta sifat elastis yang rendah pula.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">5.3. Pembahasan <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Metalografi Kuantitatif<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Dari hasil
pengujian dan hasil gambar foto yang didapat kita dapat melihat ukuran butir
membesar sebagai akibat dari pemberian perlakuan panas yang kemudian
didinginkan secara cepat dengan menggunakan media pendingin air garam.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Akibat dari
perlakuan panas dengan pendinginan yang cepat fasa pearlit secara kuantitatif
akan lebih banyak atau dominant daripada fasa ferit. Atau dengan kata lain
akibat dari laju pendinginan secara cepat mempengaruhi pembentukan kembali fasa
ferit.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Semakin lambat laju
pendinginan maka fasa ferit yang pada saat pemanasan bertransformasi menjadi
perlit akan mudah bertransformasi kembali menjadi fasa ferit. Oleh karena itu
perlakuan panas yang diberikan kepada specimen yang kemudian didinginkan secara
cepat akan memiliki fasa perlit yang dominant sebagai akibat dari tidak
sempatnya fasa perlit tersebut bertrasformasi kembali menjadi fasa ferit.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Kita dapat
menentukan jumlah fasa secara kuantitatif<span>
</span>yang terjadi dari suatu specimen yang telah diberi perlakuan panas
dengan kecepatan pendinginan tertentu. Dimana kita tahu kecepatan pendinginan
yang mempengaruhi sedikit dan banyaknya fasa-fasa tertentu. Hal ini dilakukan
dengan pertama-tama membuat foto gambar sturktur dari suatu specimen kemudian
dibuat titik-titik yang simetris dengan jumlah tertentu pada gambar foto
specimen tersebut. Dimana titik yang tepat mengenai fasa tertentu dihitung 1
(satu) dan mengenai tepi fasa dihitung ½ (setengah) untuk masing-masing fasa
yang ada. Kemudian persentase jumlah fasa tertentu dapat ditentukan dengan
rumus berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<table align="left" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none; margin-left: 6.75pt; margin-right: 6.75pt;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 18pt;">
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color -moz-use-text-color windowtext; border-style: none none solid; border-width: medium medium 1pt; height: 18pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 176.4pt;" width="235">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">jumlah titik pada fasa tertentu</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 21pt;">
<td style="border: medium none; height: 21pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 176.4pt;" width="235">
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US">Jumlah
titik total</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Persen fasa tertentu = <span> </span><span> </span>x 100 %</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Kemudian untuk menghitung ukuran butir serta jumlah
butiran per inci kuadrat dapat kita tentukan dengan pertama-tama membuat
lingkaran pada kotak titik-titik yang digunakan untuk menghitung persen fasa.
Kemudian dihitung jumlah garis dari tepi fasa yang mengenai lingkaran tersebut.
Rumus yang digunakan untk menghitung ukuran butir dan jumlah butiran perinci
kuadrat adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Untuk menentukan ukuran butir</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">G = <span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1038" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:99.75pt;height:32.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image039.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="43" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image040.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1038" width="133" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1038"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676337">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Dimana :<span> </span>G<span> </span>= Besaran butir ASTM</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1039" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:15pt;height:17.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image041.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="23" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image042.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1039" width="20" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1039"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676338">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]-->= Total keliling lingkaran = <span style="position: relative; top: 3pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1040"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:29.25pt;height:14.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image043.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="19" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image044.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1040" width="39" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1040"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676339">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><span> </span>(cm0</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>P<span> </span>= Total jumlah perpotongan keliling
Lingkaran dengan butiran</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>M<span> </span>= Pembesaran gambar foto</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Untuk menentukan jumlah butiran perinci kuadrat</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">N= <span style="position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1041" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:21pt;height:15pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image045.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="20" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image046.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1041" width="28" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1041"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390676340">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Dimana :<span> </span>n<span> </span>= ASTM Grain Size Number (1-8) = G</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>N<span> </span>= Jumlah butiran perinci kuadrat.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">BAB VI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US">6.1.
Kesimpulan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Karakteristik struktur logam
atau paduan logam memiliki sifat fisis dan mekanis yang berbeda tergantung dari
jenis perlakuan panas dan proses pendinginannya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 17.85pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kekuatan dan keuletan suatu
material yang telah mengalami proses perlakuan panas akan dipengaruhi jenis
media pendingin yang digunakan. Urutan ketangguhan bahan menurut media
pendinginnya yaitu : air garam, air, solar, oli dan udara.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Fasa-fasa yang terbentuk adalah
: Ferit, sementit, perlit, martensit,austenit, bainit dan ladeburit.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Struktur butir suatu material
yang telah mengalami proses perlakuan panas sangat ditentukan oleh jenis media
pendingin yang digunakan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.7pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -17.85pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pengujian metalografi bertujuan
untuk mengetahui struktur yang terbentuk dari pengamatan struktur mikro pada
foto dari perbesaran miokroskop untuk material yang telah mengalami perlakuan
panas dan didinginkan dengan beberapa media pendingin yang berbeda densitasnya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US">6.2
Saran<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Harap agar
prosedur pengambilan gambar dapat diperjelas dengan menjalaninya.</span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">DAFTAR PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US">Pengetahuan Bahan
Teknik</span></i><span lang="EN-US">, Prof. Ir. Tata Surdia MS. Met., E dan </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Prof. Dr. Shiroku Saito. Pradya Pratama.</span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US">Ilmu Teknologi Bahan, </span></i><span lang="EN-US">Lawrence
H. Van Vlack, dan Sriati Djaprie</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>Erlangga, <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Jakarta</st1:city></st1:place>.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>piamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5458366533732204239.post-68241147169255094812012-02-13T06:05:00.001-08:002012-02-13T06:05:51.825-08:00Impact<link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_oledata.mso" rel="OLE-Object-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">BAB I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">1.1.Latar Belakang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Dewasa ini
perkembangan teknologi sudah sangat pesat.Seiring dengan itu, maka tuntutan
akan komponen- komponen pendukungnya juga bertambah seperti halnya peyediaan
logam, disadati atau tidak unsure logam ini sangatlah penting dalam proses
pengembangan teknologi bahkan hamper menambah semua aspek kehidupan manusia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Material-
material tersebut tentunya harus memenuhi persyaratan.Persyaratan seperti
kekuatan, ketahanan korosi, dan lain- lain.Pada kondisi standar sehingga dapat
dipakai untuk konstruksi sehingga tidak perlu diperkatikan segi keamanan dan
teknologinya dari penggunaan konstruksi jasa tersebut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Pengujian
tumbukan adalah suatu cara untuk mngetahui sifat- sifat material dengan hasil
produksi yang diseleksi.Pada pengujian ini kita ingin mengetahui bagaimana jika
suatu bahan mengalami pembebanan tiba- tiba, apakah dapat ditanggulangi atau
tidak.Dalam kehidupan sehari- hari banyak kita jumpai aplikasi yang dapat
dilakukan pada praktikum tumbukan, akan tetapi orang yang melakukannya tidak
mengetahui bahwa yang dilakukan merupakan aplikasi dari percobaan tumbukan.Alat
tersebut dapat kita jumpai pada perbengkalan dan pertukangan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Berbagai
problema dalam perancangan, karena kurangnya data- data dalam mengetahui sifat
suatu specimen.Oleh karena itu untuk menguji ketangguhansuatu material maka
kita melakukan test yang disebut Impact test.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.2<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Tujuan Dan Manfaat Pengujian<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tujuan pengujian</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tujuan Khusus</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">menjelaskan defenisi, tujuan
dan prosedur pengujian impack.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">mengetahui energi takikan
terhadap kukatan impack.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">membuat grafik hubungan antara
energi impack bahan dengan temperature pada berbagai jenis takikan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">mengetahui pengaruh takikan
terhadap energi impack bahan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">membandingkan grafik THP
terhadap grafik transisi ulet-getas.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tujuan Umum</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">mengatahui pengaruh temperature
terhadap laju patah getas</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">mengetahui laju pembebanan pada
temperature normal dan temperature rendah</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">mengetahui hubungan ketangguhan
retak dengan energi impack.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Manfaat Pengujian</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Bagi praktikan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">praktiakan dapat mengetahui
factor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kekerasan pada suatu bahan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">mengetahui factor-faktor yang
mempengaruhi kerapuhan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">mengetahui kelebihan dan
kekurangan dari masign-masing metode pada impak test</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Bagi industri</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">mengetahui jenis material yang
mempunyai ketangguhan tinggi, sehingga dalam pemilihan untuk produk dapat tepat
dan efisien</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">dapat menyesuaikan sifat-sifat
fisik logam dengan jenis yang dihasilkan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">BAB II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">LANDASAN TEORI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">2.1.Teori Dasar<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Defenisi dan
Garis Besar dari Pengujian Impact<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Impact test adalah pengujian ketahanan material terhadap
beban kejut.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Garis besar<span>
</span>pengujian inpact:</span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Energi takikan terhadap kekuatan
tumbukan.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Metode pengujian impact.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Hubungan antara energi impact
bahan dan temperature pada beberapa jenis takikan.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Pengaruh temperaturterhadap laju
patah getas.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Tipe- tie perpatahan</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Mode- mode perpatahan.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Metode
Pengujian Impact<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
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<v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/>
<v:formulas>
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</v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_s1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;
left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:1in;margin-top:17.35pt;width:197.25pt;
height:146.25pt;z-index:-22'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 195px; left: 0px; margin-left: 96px; margin-top: 23px; position: absolute; width: 263px; z-index: -22;"><img height="195" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1027" width="263" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Metode pengujian
impact test adalah:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">1.<b>Cara charpy</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada metode charpy, specimen yang sudah diberi takikan
diletakkan atau ditumpuh pada kedua ujungnya.Spesimen diletakkan dengan takikan
berlawanan arah dengan <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">gaya</st1:city></st1:place>
kemudian bandul dengan memukul tepat dibagian yang berlawanan dengan
takikan.Bandul dengan berat m.q dengan simpangan(x) dan tinggi h dilepas sampai
memukul specimen.Usaha yang digunakan untuk mematahkan specimen yaitu:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>U
=m.q.h( joule)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Usaha yang dilakukan untuk memecahkan specimen per
satuan luas disebut kekuatan impact specimen:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Ui
= U/ A= m.q.h / A ( Joule/mm<sup>2</sup>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;
left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:18pt;margin-top:8.4pt;width:134.25pt;
height:141pt;z-index:-23'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image003.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 188px; left: 0px; margin-left: 24px; margin-top: 11px; position: absolute; width: 179px; z-index: -23;"><img height="188" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1026" width="179" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">2,<b>Metode Izood</b>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Dalam metode pengujian izood ini, pengujian patah<span> </span>dilakukan pada temperature tetap dengan
menggunakan bahan ui berkapasitas 10.000 ton yang bisa menyebabkan pengujian
sangat mahal.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Keuntungan dan
Kerugian Cara Charpy dan Izood<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">a.Cara Charpy</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Keuntungan:</span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Menggunakan batang uji yang lebih
kecil.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Hasil pengujiannya lebih akurat.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Biayanya murah.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Kerugian</span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Spesimen dapat bergeser karena
tidak ada<span> </span>penjepit.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Hanya dapat dipasang pada posisi
horizontal</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">b.Cara Izood</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Keuntungan</span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Variasi pemasangan lebih mudah.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Specimen tidak mudah bergeser
karena dijepit.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Kerugian</span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Biaya yang digunakan mahal</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Batang uji yang digunakan lebih
besar.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1028"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;
margin-left:54pt;margin-top:17.2pt;width:279pt;height:291pt;z-index:-21'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image005.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 388px; left: 0px; margin-left: 72px; margin-top: 23px; position: absolute; width: 372px; z-index: -21;"><img height="388" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1028" width="372" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Hasil
pengujiannya kurang akurat.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Tegangan Tiga
Sumbu<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada gambar terlihat bahwa permukaan platyang tebal akan
membuka tegangan yang tinggi.Bila tebalnya bertambah maka tegangan yang
diperoleh material sumbu x dan y adalah </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">σ</span><span lang="EN-US">x dan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">σ</span><span lang="EN-US">y.Penekanan
yang dilakukan searah sumbu x menghasilkan pengaruh tegangan hanya dalam sumbu
x dan sumbu y berkurang karena adanya distrinusi tegangan ketiga arah(
triaksial) pada sumbu koordinat yang ditentukan pada gambar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Tipe- Tipe
Perpatahan<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>a.Perpatahan
Intergranular.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Yaitu
perpatahan yang terjadi diantara butir.Perpatrahan ini terjadi pada logam
ulet.Proses ini melalui tiga tahap: pertama- tama akan terbentuk lubang yang
halusatau rongga.Batasnya pada permukaan yang lemah disebelah dalam.Ronga
tersebut kemudian memuai akibat deformasi plastik dan akhirnya bergabung
melalui penguatan lokal logam terbentuk perpatahan bersyarat.Jenis perpatahan
terjadi karena rongga plastik instant, yang kemudian tembus keluar dan penatian
tambah kedalam.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">2.Perpatahan Transgranular.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Yaitu
perpataan yang terjadi didalam butir.Seringkali dianggap sebagai kelompok-
kelompok perpatahan khusus.Pada berbagai paduan didapatkan keseimbangan yang
sangat peka antara tegangan yang diperlukan untuk perambatan retak dan belah
dengan tegangan yang diperlukan.Meskipun energiyang diserap pada rambatan retak
lebih rendah dai perpatahan belah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 236px; left: 0px; margin-left: 84px; margin-top: 24px; position: absolute; width: 396px; z-index: -10;"><img height="236" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1039" width="396" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Hal- hal Yang
Mempengaruhi Ketangguhan Material<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">1.Takikan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada suatu material atau bahan, terdapat takikan- takikan
akan berpengaruh pada ketangguhan material.Hal ini disebabkab dengan adanya
takikan maka akan mengakibatkan konsentrasi tegangan baik itu pada satu titik
pada takikan atau lebih.Adapun jenis takikansebagai- berikut:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">a.Takikan Segitiga</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 144pt; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1029" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;
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<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.png"
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 52px; left: 0px; margin-left: 24px; margin-top: 2px; position: absolute; width: 120px; z-index: -20;"><img height="52" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1029" width="120" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Distribusi tegangan
berkonsentrasi pada satu titik pada dasar takikan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">b.Takikan Segi empat</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1030" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
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z-index:-19'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 58px; left: 0px; margin-left: 24px; margin-top: 0px; position: absolute; width: 117px; z-index: -19;"><img height="58" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1030" width="117" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Distribusi
tegangan berkonsentrasipada dua titik</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">c.Takikan setengah lingkara.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1031" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;
left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:18pt;margin-top:.9pt;width:120pt;height:46.5pt;
z-index:-18'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image015.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 62px; left: 0px; margin-left: 24px; margin-top: 1px; position: absolute; width: 160px; z-index: -18;"><img height="62" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1031" width="160" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>Tegangan
berkonsentrasi merata pada takikan.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Dari gambar diatas menunjukkna bahwa energi/ usaha yang
paling rendah untuk mematahkan suatu bahan pada berbagai jenis takikan adalah
takikan segitiga karena tegangan terpusat pada satu titik.Kemudian meningkat,
segi empat, dan yang paling tinggi adalah usaha untuk takikan lingkaran dimana
tegangan merata pada takikan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">2.Beban.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pengaruh beban terhadap ketangguhan material adalah
semakin berat beban yang diberikan maka usaha yang timbul karena beban tersebut
semakin besar pula, sehingga material yang diuji lebih cepat patah dan
sebaliknya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">3.Temperatur.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Temperatur menimbulkan pengaruh berarti pada ketangguhan
suatu material/ bahan/Perubahan sifat suatu bahan berlangsung seiring dengan
perubahan suhu yang terjadi.Semakin rendah suhu maka material akan semakin
getas dan sebaliknya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1032" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:9pt;margin-top:18pt;width:261pt;height:252pt;
z-index:-17'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 336px; left: 0px; margin-left: 12px; margin-top: 24px; position: absolute; width: 348px; z-index: -17;"><img height="336" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1032" width="348" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Transisi Ulet Getas Pada Logam Serta Pengaruhnya Pada Energi Impact<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>60</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>50</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>40</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>30</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>20</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>10</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>0-80<span> </span>-40<span>
</span>0<span> </span>40<span> </span>80</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Transisi ulet getas dapat dilihat pada gambar
diatas.Grafik tersebut menggambarkan transisi ulet getas pada baja lunak.Baja
lunak memiliki transisi diturunkan dengan penambahan paduan atau dengan
menghaluskan ukuran butir.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Grafik dibawah ini menunjukkan hubungan antara
temperature dengan energi E, laju patah getas dan beban mulur P’, beban maksimum.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span lang="EN-US">3.3.Data
dan Pengolahan Data<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 18pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Data<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Beban bandul( U= 300joule)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Panjang lengan bandul 950mm= R</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Usaha lalibrasi 2 joule = <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Uk</st1:country-region></st1:place></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban sebelum dilepaskan(H1)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">H1<span> </span>=
R + R Sin(α – 90<sup>0</sup>)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
0,95 + 0,95 sin (160-90)<sup>0</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=1,843
m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US">Massa</span></st1:city></st1:place><span lang="EN-US"> Bandul( M)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">M<span> </span>=
U/ g.h1</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 300/ 9,81 x
1,843</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=16,593
kg</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban kalibrasialat( bk)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Bk<span> </span>=
<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Uk</st1:country-region></st1:place>/
m.g</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
2/ 16,593 x 9,81 = 0,0123 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Pengolahan
Data<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">1.Spesimen dengan bentuk takikan segitiga dengan kedalaman
2mm dan β = 81<sup>0<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 143px; left: 0px; margin-left: 80px; margin-top: 10px; position: absolute; width: 328px; z-index: -16;"><img height="143" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1033" width="328" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Luas Penampang</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">A<span> </span>= a ( a – x)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 10(10-2) = 80 mm<sup>2<span> </span><o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban setelah dilepaskan( H2)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">H2<span> </span>= R+ R Sin(β –
90)<sup>0</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 0,95 + 0,95
sin(81- 90)<sup>0<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<sup><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></sup><span lang="EN-US">= 0,80 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban perhitungan(Hs)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Hs<span> </span>=h1- h2- hk</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 1,843 -0,8
-0.0123 = 1,0307 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Usaha yang dilakukan untuk mematahkan specimen( Us)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Us = m.g.hs</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=(
16,593)(9,81)(1,0307)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=167.77 joule</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Kekuatan impact( Ui)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Ui<span> </span>= Us / A</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 167,77 / 80
= 2,097 J/ mm<sup>2</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">2.Spesimen dengan bentuk takikan segiempat dengan
kedalaman 2mm dan β = 75<sup>0</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Luas Penampang</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">A<span> </span>= a ( a – x)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 10(10-2) =
80 mm<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban setelah dilepaskan( H2)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">H2<span> </span>= R+ R Sin(β –
90)<sup>0</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 0,95 + 0,95
sin(75- 90)<sup>0<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<sup><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></sup><span lang="EN-US">= 0,704 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban perhitungan(Hs)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Hs<span> </span>=h1- h2- hk</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 1,843
-0,704 -0.0123 = 1,1267 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Usaha yang dilakukan untuk mematahkan specimen( Us)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Us = m.g.hs</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=(
16,593)(9,81)(1,1267)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=183,40 joule</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Kekuatan impact( Ui)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Ui<span> </span>= Us / A</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 183,40 / 80
= 2,29 J/ mm<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1035" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;
left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:90pt;margin-top:18pt;width:252pt;height:117pt;
z-index:-14'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image023.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 156px; left: 0px; margin-left: 120px; margin-top: 24px; position: absolute; width: 336px; z-index: -14;"><img height="156" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image024.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1035" width="336" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">3.Spesimen dengan
bentuk takikan setengah lingkaran, kedalaman 2 mm dan β = 54<sup>0</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Luas Penampang</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">A<span> </span>= a ( a – x)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 10(10-2) =
80 mm<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban setelah dilepaskan( H2)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">H2<span> </span>= R+ R Sin(β –
90)<sup>0</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 0,95 + 0,95
sin(54- 90)<sup>0<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<sup><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></sup><span lang="EN-US">= 0,392 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban perhitungan(Hs)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Hs<span> </span>=h1- h2- hk</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 1,843
-0,392-0.0123 = 1,44 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Usaha yang dilakukan untuk mematahkan specimen( Us)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Us = m.g.hs</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=(
16,593)(9,81)(1,44)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=234,40joule</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Kekuatan impact( Ui)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Ui<span> </span>= Us / A</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 234,40 / 80
= 2,39 J/ mm<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">4.<span> </span>1.Spesimen
dengan bentuk takikan segitiga dengan kedalaman 2mm dan β = 85<sup>0<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1036" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:78pt;margin-top:4.4pt;width:246pt;height:107.25pt;
z-index:-13'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 143px; left: 0px; margin-left: 104px; margin-top: 6px; position: absolute; width: 328px; z-index: -13;"><img height="143" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1036" width="328" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Luas Penampang</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">A<span> </span>= a ( a – x)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 10(10-2) =
80 mm<sup>2</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban setelah dilepaskan( H2)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">H2<span> </span>= R+ R Sin(β –
90)<sup>0</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 0,95 + 0,95
sin(85- 90)<sup>0<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<sup><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></sup><span lang="EN-US">= 0,867 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban perhitungan(Hs)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Hs<span> </span>=h1- h2- hk</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 1,843
-0,867 -0.0123 = 0,964 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Usaha yang dilakukan untuk mematahkan specimen( Us)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Us = m.g.hs</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=( 16,593)(9,81)(0,964)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=156,917
joule</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Kekuatan impact( Ui)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Ui<span> </span>= Us / A</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 156,917/ 80
= 1,96 J/ mm<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">5. 2.Spesimen dengan bentuk takikan segiempat dengan
kedalaman 2mm dan β = 55<sup>0</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1037" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:60.75pt;margin-top:9pt;width:236.25pt;height:95.25pt;
z-index:-12'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image021.png"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 127px; left: 0px; margin-left: 81px; margin-top: 12px; position: absolute; width: 315px; z-index: -12;"><img height="127" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1037" width="315" /></span><!--[endif]--></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Luas Penampang</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">A<span> </span>= a ( a – x)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 10(10-2) =
80 mm<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban setelah dilepaskan( H2)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">H2<span> </span>= R+ R Sin(β –
90)<sup>0</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 0,95 + 0,95
sin(55- 90)<sup>0<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<sup><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></sup><span lang="EN-US">= 0,405m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban perhitungan(Hs)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Hs<span> </span>=h1- h2- hk</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 1,843
-0,405-0.0123 = 1,426 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Usaha yang dilakukan untuk mematahkan specimen( Us)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Us = m.g.hs</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=(
16,593)(9,81)(1,426)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=232,12joule</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Kekuatan impact( Ui)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Ui<span> </span>= Us / A</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 232,12/ 80
= 2,29 J/ mm<sup>2</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1038" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;
left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:90pt;margin-top:9.6pt;width:252pt;height:117pt;
z-index:-11'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image025.gif"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 156px; left: 0px; margin-left: 120px; margin-top: 13px; position: absolute; width: 336px; z-index: -11;"><img height="156" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image025.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1038" width="336" /></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">6.Spesimen dengan
bentuk takikan setengah lingkaran, kedalaman 2 mm dan β = 54<sup>0</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Luas Penampang</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">A<span> </span>= a ( a – x)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 10(10-2) =
80 mm<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban setelah dilepaskan( H2)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">H2<span> </span>= R+ R Sin(β – 90)<sup>0</sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 0,95 + 0,95
sin(54- 90)<sup>0<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<sup><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></sup><span lang="EN-US">= 0,392 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tinggi beban perhitungan(Hs)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Hs<span> </span>=h1- h2- hk</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 1,843
-0,392-0.0123 = 1,439 m</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Usaha yang dilakukan untuk mematahkan specimen( Us)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Us = m.g.hs</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=(
16,593)(9,81)(1,44)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=234,237joule</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Kekuatan impact( Ui)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Ui<span> </span>= Us / A</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>= 234,237/ 80
= 2,93 J/ mm<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">BAB IV<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">HASIL PENGUJIAN DAN PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">IV.1 Analisa Hasil
Pengujian <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Pembahasan Umum<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1048" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:54pt;margin-top:19.8pt;width:309.5pt;height:198.25pt;
z-index:-1'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image026.emz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 264px; left: 0px; margin-left: 72px; margin-top: 27px; position: absolute; width: 413px; z-index: -1;"><img height="264" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image027.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1048" width="413" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">“Membandingkan Grafik THP Terhadap Grafik Transisi Ulet Getas”<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Pada grafik usaha vs temperatur pada THP dapat dilihat
usaha yang dibutuhkan untuk mematahkan specimen (US), terganung dari
temperature specimen dan takikan.Apabila temperature specimen tinggi maka
energi yang dibutuhkan untuk mematahkan specimen semakin besar pula, hal ini
disebabkan terjadinya patah ulet pada specimen dengan temperature tinggi.Energi
perpatahan juga dipengaruhi oleh bentuk takikan.Dapat dilihat bahwa energi
untuk mematahkan specimen terdapat pada takikan ½ lingkaran, dimana pada
takikan tersebut energi secara merata,, tidak seperti pada takikan
segitiga.Karena pada takikan segitiga terdapat satu titik pusat konsentrasi
energi, jadi walaupun energi yang diberikannya hanya sedikit, specimen dengan
takikan tersebut dengan mudah patah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Tetapi pada grafik THP yangdiperoleh terdapat
penyimpangan pada takikan segiempat dan ½ lingkaran.Pada akikan segiempat
energi perpatahan berbanding terbalik dengan suhu, dan pada takikan ½ lingkaran
energi perpatahannya linear.Penyimpangan- penyimpangan tersebut mungkin
disebabkan oleh beberapa faktor:</span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Kesalahan penempatan specimen pada
alat penguji.Spesimen diletakkan tidak ditengah, sehingga bandul tidak
memukul tepat dibelakang takikan.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Ukuran specimen yang berbeda pada
satu jenis takikan.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Kesalahan pembacaan pengukuran
pada lat pengujian.</span></li>
</ol>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Grafik </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">α
Vs h2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1043" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
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z-index:-6'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image028.emz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 255px; left: 0px; margin-left: 60px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 420px; z-index: -6;"><img height="255" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image029.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1043" width="420" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">α merupakan simpangan bandul sebelum dilepaskan. Dalam
pengujian ini α adalah konstanta yaitu 160<sup>o</sup>, sedangkan h2 adalah
tinggi bebab ssetelah dilepaskan, α tidak mempengaruhi tinggi beban setelah
dilepaskan karena nilai α konsten, akan tetapi yang mempengaruhinya adalah
jenis takikan dan temperature.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Grafik h2 Vs β<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1044" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
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z-index:-5'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image030.emz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 229px; left: 0px; margin-left: 72px; margin-top: 3px; position: absolute; width: 408px; z-index: -5;"><img height="229" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image031.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1044" width="408" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">β meripakan sipmpangan bandul
setelah dilepaskan sedangkan h2 adalah tinggi beban setelah dilepaskan. Dalam
percobaan ii besarnya β sangat dipengaruhi oleh h2. semakin tinggi nilai β maka
h2 juga semakin besar, demikian juga sebaliknya, semakin kecil nilai β maka
semakin kecil pula nilai h2-nya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Grafik β Vs H1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1045" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:63pt;margin-top:0;width:284.25pt;height:148.7pt;
z-index:-4'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image032.emz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 198px; left: 0px; margin-left: 84px; margin-top: 0px; position: absolute; width: 379px; z-index: -4;"><img height="198" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image033.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1045" width="379" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">H1 yaitu tinggi beban sebelum dilepaskan sedangkan <b>β </b>merupakan simpangan bandul setelah
dilepaskan. Dalam percobaan ini besarnya nilai <b>β </b>tidak dipengaruhi oleh h1 kerana h1 konstan. Berapapun besarnya
nilai <b>β </b>maka nilai h1 tetap konstan</span></div>
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id="_x0000_s1046" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:30.75pt;margin-top:-.3pt;width:338.25pt;height:217.2pt;
z-index:-3'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image034.emz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: relative; z-index: -3;"><span style="height: 290px; left: 41px; position: absolute; top: -1px; width: 451px;"><img height="290" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image035.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1046" width="451" /></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Grafik h1 Vs Us<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">H1 yaitu tinggi beban setelah dilepaskan sedangkan Us
adalah usaha yang dilakukan utuk mematahkan specimen. Dalam percobaan ini nilai
h1 adalah konstan sedangkan nialau Us tidak. Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa
disinih1 tidak mempunyai pengaruh terhadap nilai Us.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">Grafik Us Vs <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Uk</st1:country-region></st1:place><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
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id="_x0000_s1047" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:48.75pt;margin-top:1.65pt;width:284.25pt;height:148.7pt;
z-index:-2'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.emz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 198px; left: 0px; margin-left: 65px; margin-top: 2px; position: absolute; width: 379px; z-index: -2;"><img height="198" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1047" width="379" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US">Uk</span></st1:country-region></st1:place><span lang="EN-US"> merupakan uasaha kalibrasi dan Us yaitu usaha yang dilakukan untuk
mematahkan specimen. Disini <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Uk</st1:country-region></st1:place>
bernilai konstan yaitu 2 joule seangkan nilai Us berubah-ubah. Jadi dapat
disimpulakn bahwa nilai <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Uk</st1:country-region></st1:place>
tidak mempinyai pengaruh terhadap nilai Us.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">IV.2<span> </span>Analisa Tambahan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Pembahasan Khusus<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Rumus Ketangguhan Mode 3 (out of Plane Shear)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Sumber internet
(Modes of fracture)</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_s1042" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;
text-align:left;margin-left:140.05pt;margin-top:.3pt;width:130.9pt;height:113.15pt;
z-index:-7'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image038.jpg"
o:title="tf-4" gain="142470f" blacklevel="-11796f"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 151px; left: 0px; margin-left: 187px; margin-top: 0px; position: absolute; width: 175px; z-index: -7;"><img height="151" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image039.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_s1042" width="175" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Rumus ketangguhan untuk Mode 3<span style="position: relative; top: 5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:9pt;height:17.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image040.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="23" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image041.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="12" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1025"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675849">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
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type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;margin-left:125.05pt;margin-top:.55pt;
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<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image042.wmz"
o:title=""/>
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<![endif]><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 44px; margin-left: 167px; margin-top: 1px; position: absolute; width: 97px; z-index: -8;"><img height="44" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image043.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1041" width="97" /></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Dimana </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 6pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>K<sub>IC<span> </span></sub><span> </span>=
Nilai kekuatan material</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Y<span> </span>= Konstanta Bentuk Perpatahan untuk
Mode 3 (1,1)<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">a<span> </span>= Perpanjangan
retakan yang terjadi</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Berikut ini adalah
niali K<sub>IC</sub> untuk bebrapa jenis material :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none; margin-left: 41.4pt;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 169.55pt;" valign="top" width="226">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Material</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 145.45pt;" valign="top" width="194">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">K<sub>IC</sub>
Mpa (m)<sup>1/2</sup></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 169.55pt;" valign="top" width="226">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Aluminium </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 145.45pt;" valign="top" width="194">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">36</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 169.55pt;" valign="top" width="226">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Bja Paduan</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 145.45pt;" valign="top" width="194">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">50</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 169.55pt;" valign="top" width="226">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Titanium </span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 145.45pt;" valign="top" width="194">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">44-46</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 23.4pt;">
<td colspan="2" style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 23.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 169.9pt;" valign="top" width="227">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">Aliminium Oxide</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 23.4pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt; width: 145.1pt;" valign="top" width="193">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 5.4pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">14-28</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
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<tr height="0">
<td style="border: medium none;" width="226"></td>
<td style="border: medium none;" width="0"></td>
<td style="border: medium none;" width="193"></td>
</tr>
<!--[endif]-->
</tbody></table>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">BAB V<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">5.1.Kesimpulan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Pengujian impact adalah pengujian
ketahanan terhadap beban kejut.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on"><span lang="EN-US">Ada</span></st1:city></st1:place><span lang="EN-US"> du metode
pengujian impact, yaitu cara charpy, dimana specimen diletakkan horizontal
lalu diberi beban kejut sebesar P.Cara izood, specimen diletakkan vertical
lalu ditumbuk dengan beban sebesar P.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Tipe- tipe perpatahan adalah
perpatahan intergranular, dan perpatahan transgranular.Perpatahan
transgranular adalah perpatahan yang terjadi di dalam butir, sedangkan
perpatahan intergranular adalah perpatahan yang terjadi diantara butir.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Hal- hal yang mempengaruhi
ketangguhan material adalah takikan, beban temperature.</span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">5.2.Saran- Saran.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Specimen yang digunakan sebaiknya sudah dipotong-potong
agar waktu praktikum lebih efisien.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">DAFTAR PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Djaprie Sriati.Ir.Me.M.Met.ILMU DAN TEKNOLOGI
BAHAN.PT.Erlangga.Jakarta.1992.<span>
</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Small Man R.E.METALURGI FISIK MODERN.Edisi ke-4.<o:p></o:p></span></b></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">PT
Gramedia.Jakarta.1991.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>piamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5458366533732204239.post-50069828372031446002012-02-13T06:04:00.001-08:002012-02-13T06:04:34.858-08:00Heat Treatment<link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_oledata.mso" rel="OLE-Object-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">BAB II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Sejak zaman dulu metode
heathreatment telah digunakan oleh orang-orang untuk mengubah sifat-sifat
mekanik logam sesuai dengan keinginannya, contohnya dalam pembuatan alat-alat
perang seperti ujung tombak pedang serta tameng. Ini menunjukan bahwa
heathreatment adalah metode paling mudah dan baik yang dapat digunakan mengubah
sifat-sifat mekanik dari suatu material. Pada zaman dahulu logam yang baik
dianggap adalah logam yang keras dan kuat karena penggunannya hanya semata
untuk peralatan peralatan yang sederhana seperti pedang, ujung tombak dan yang
lainnya. Oleh karena itu metode perlakuan panas yang digunakan belum
bervariasi, nanti kemudian dizaman moderen ketika qualitas logam tidak hanya
diukur dari kekuatan dan kekerasaanya tetapi dari terpenuhinya sifat-sifat
mekanik lain yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan, baru kemudian berkembang
metode-metode Heathreatment untuk menghasilkan sifat-sifat mekanik yang
dibutuhkan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Sekarang metode
heathreatment masih merupakan metode yang paling baik yang dapat digunakan
untuk mengubah sifat-sifat mekanik suatu material logam. Dengan heathreatment
kita dapat meningkatkan ataupun menurunkan sifat-sifat dari logam sesuai dengan
kebutuhan akan sifat mekanik logam tersebut yang kita butuhkan. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Pesatnya laju
pembangunan dan teknologi yang semakin moderen sekarang ini mendorong naiknya
tingkat kebutuhan akan logam dengan berbagai macam karakteristik yang sesuai
dengan tujuan penggunaannya. Hal ini juga mendorong berkembangnnya variasi
metode-metode Heathreatment untuk menghasilkan sifat-sifat<span> </span>dari logam yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan dunia
industri moderen saat ini. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">1.2. Tujuan dan Manfaat Pengujian<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">A. Tujuan Pengujian</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Setelah melakukan
Heat Treatment praktikan dapat :</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menjelaskan tujuan Heat
Treatment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menjelaskan prosedur proses
Heat Treatment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Menjelaskan bahan dan peralatan yang
digunakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Menjelaskan jenis-jenis proses Heat
Treatment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Menjelaskan hubungan antara diagram fasa
Fe-C dengan proses Heat Treatment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menjelaskan hubungan antara
media pendingin, laju pendinginan, diagram TTT dengan proses Heat Treatment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mampu melakukan dengan baik
proses Heat Treatment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>B. Manfaat Pengujian</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>1) Bagi
Praktikan</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Swiss911 XCm BT","sans-serif";"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Dapat memahami dan mengetahui
proses-proses yang dilakukan pada pengujian perlakuan panas.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Swiss911 XCm BT","sans-serif";"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Mampu melakukan proses
pengujian perlakuan panas terhadap material yang diberikan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Swiss911 XCm BT","sans-serif";"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Praktikan
dapat membedakan kecepatan pendinginan dari setiap fluida pendinginan yang
digunakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Swiss911 XCm BT","sans-serif";"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Dapat
mengeahui fase-fase yang terbentuk pada logam pengujian.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -45pt;">
<span lang="DE">2) Bagi Industri<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Swiss911 XCm BT","sans-serif";"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Sebagai
penentu kebijakan dalam menentukan besar biaya yang harus dikeluarkan untuk
membeli material. Dalam arti, Industri dapat memproduksi sendiri, menentukan
standar kekuatan, dan menentukan sifat-sifat bahan yang diinginkan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 108pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Swiss911 XCm BT","sans-serif";"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Memudahkan
proses pengujian untuk mengetahui sifat-sifat bahan yang akan digunakan pada
suatu rancangan konstruksi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 81pt; text-indent: -81pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 13pt;">BAB II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="DE" style="font-size: 13pt;">LANDASAN
TEORI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 24pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -24pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2.1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Teori Dasar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 24pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 12pt;">
<span>Perlakuan panas
merupakan suatu proses untuk merubah sifat-sifat dari logam sampai suhu
tertentu kemudian didinginkan dengan media pendingin tertentu pula. Baja
merupakan jenis logam yang banyak mendapatkan perlakuan panas untuk megubah
sifat mekanik<span> </span>sesuai dengan keinginan
namun terlebih dahulu diketahui instalasi dari baja tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 24pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 12pt;">
<span>Untuk mengetahui
suhu yang digunakan dapat dilihatpada gambar Fe-C dan aturan kerja perlakuan
panas pada baja:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 48.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -24.75pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Setiap jenis
baja mempunyai daerah suhu yang optimal untuk pencelupanyang terbentang dari
suhu awal yang tinggi ke suhu akhir yang rendah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 48.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -24.75pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Bahan
campuran baja dengan keadaan kadar karbon yang tinggi 0,3 %, beroksidasi dengan
intensif oleh karenanya harus dipanaskan sampai suhu awal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 48.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -24.75pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Baja karbon
yang tinggi dan campuran merupakan penghantar panas yang buruk sehingga haru dipanaskan
secara prlahan-lahan dan menyeluruh hingga di atas suhu klritis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 48.75pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -24.75pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Jika
pemanasan dilakukan melampaui batas suhu yang diperbolehkan akan terjadi gosong
pada baja dan setelah dingin akan mengalami kerapuhan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span>2.1.1.<span> </span>Jenis
– jenis<span> </span>Proses Heatreatment<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Anneling
(Melunakkan)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>Proses Anneling
atau melunakkan baja adalah proses di mana pemanasan dilakukan sampai di atas
temperature kritis hingga merata kemudian dilakukan pendinginan di dalam
tungku, selanjutnya dijaga agar temperatur bagian dalam dan luar logam
kira-kira sama sehingga diperoleh struktur yang diinginkan . Tujuan dari
Anneling antara lain untuk melunakkan material, menghilangkan tegangan sisa dan
memperbaiki struktur butir.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Queenching
(Pencelupan)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>Queenching adalah
pemanasan sampai kira-kira beberapa derajat di atas temperature kritis. Apabila
suhu merata kemudian didinginkan dengan menggunakan media pendingin air atau
air garam dengan tujuan pendinginan dilakukan dengan cepat agar diperoleh austenit
yang homogen atau martensit yang halus. Tujuan dari Queenching adalah
meningkatkan sifat kekerasan material serta kegetasannya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Normalizing<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span>Yaitu suatu proses
panas logam sampai mencapai fasa austenit yang kemudian didinginkan secara
perlahan-lahan dengan media pendingin udara. Prinsip dari Normalizing adalah
untuk menormalkan kembali kondisi logam setelah mengalami perubahan struktur
akibat fatik atau sejenisnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>d)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Tempering<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span>Merupakan proses
pemanasan logam di bawah temperature kritisnya kemudian didinginkan. Bertujuan
untuk mengurangi kekerasan baja yaitu dengan mengurangi struktur martensit yang
sangat kuat. Jika kekerasan turun maka kekuatan tarik akan turun pula. Sedang
keuletan dan ketangguhan akan meningkat meskipun proses ini menghasilkan baja
yang lebih lunak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>e)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Case
Hardening<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span>Yaitu proses
pengerasan terhadap permukaan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">2.1.2.
Jenis-Jenis Pengerasan Permukaan (Case Hardening)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Karburasi</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Dimaksudkan untuk mengeraskan permukaan dengan
memanaskan bahan dalam lingkungan karbon, lalu dibiarkan beberapa waktu pada suhu
tersebut dan kemudian didinginkan. Tujuan dari pengerjaan panas itu adalah
untuk memberi lapisan luar pada benda kerja yang akan disepuh keras. </span><span lang="DE">Hal ini mungkin karena pada suhu tersebut
karbon dapat meresap ke dalam lapisan luar benda kerja. Lapisan luar benda
kerja yang telah mengambil karbon dinamakan lapisan karbonasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Karbonitriding</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Karbonitriding (Sianida kering) adalah suatu proses
pengerasan permukaan di mana baja dipanaskan di atas suhu kritis dalam
lingkungan gas dan terjadi penyerapak karbon dan nitrogen.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Cyaniding</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Cyaniding atau karbonitriding cair merupakan proses
dimana terjadi absorbsi karbon dan nitrogen untuk memperoleh permukaan yang
keras pada baja karbon rendah yang sulit dikeraskan. Proses ini dilakukan
dengan rendaman air garam yang terdiri dari Karbonat Natrium (Sodium) dan
Sianida Natrium yang dicampur dengan salah satu bahan klorid natrium dan klorid
barium, tebal lapisan sekitar 0,3 mm.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>4)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Nitriding</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">Menitrid adalah suatu proses pengerasan permukaan dalam
hal ini baja paduan special dipanaskan untuk waktu yang lama dalam suatu
atmosfer dari gas nitrogen. Baja dipanaskan samapi 510oC dalam lingkungan gas
ammonia. Nitride yang diserap oleh logam akan membentuk nitride yang keras yang
tersebar rata pada permukaan logam.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-US">.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span>2.1.3.Media
Pendingin<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Air Garam ( </span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>r</span></span><span> = 1025 kg/m<sup>3</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span>Laju pendinginan
lebih sepat dari media pendinginan yang lain. Hal ini disebabkan karena massa
jenisnya yang lebih besar dari media pendingin lain. Butiran kristal mampu
menyerap menghasilkan martensit bersifat keras dan getas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Air Biasa ( </span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>r</span></span><span> = 998 kg/m<sup>3</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span>Massa jenis air
lebih rendah dari pada air garam sehingga laju pendinginannya lebih lambat
dibandingkan dengan air garam. Hal ini disebabkan karena jarak antara atom-atom
di dalam air lebih rapat dan menghasilkan struktur martensit yang buirannya
lebih besar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>3)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Oli ( </span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>r</span></span><span> = 981 kg/m<sup>3</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span>Pendinginan lebih
lambat karena karena massa jenisnya lebih kecil dibandingkan dengan air dan air
garam sehigga laju pendinginannya lebih lambat dibanding keduanya. Menghasilan
struktur ferit dan pearlit bahkan lebih cepat dibandingkan solar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>4)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Udara<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span>Struktur yang
dihasilkan lunak dan kuat di mana laju pendinginan sangat lambat, karena udara
memiliki massa jenis paling kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US">2.1.4. <b>Sistem Kristalografi</b></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span lang="EN-US">Bentuk Kuebus</span><span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype
id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="75" o:preferrelative="t"
path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f">
<v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/>
<v:formulas>
<v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"/>
<v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"/>
<v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"/>
<v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"/>
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<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"/>
<v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"/>
<v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"/>
<v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"/>
<v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"/>
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alt="1a" style='width:123pt;height:102.75pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.jpg"
o:title="1a" gain="52429f" blacklevel="6554f"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="1a" height="137" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_1" width="164" /><!--[endif]--></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Mempunyai sisi yang sama, sudut yang sama, a = b = c, </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">a = b = g = 90.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">Kristal kubus mempunyai tiga jenis sel satuan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kubus sederhana (SC)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt;">
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id="_x0000_s1094" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;
margin-left:62.45pt;margin-top:32.1pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:69'
filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 82px; margin-top: 42px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 69;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1094" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1093"
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margin-top:31.9pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:68' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 156px; margin-top: 42px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 68;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1093" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1092"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:132.25pt;
margin-top:4.35pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:67' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 175px; margin-top: 5px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 67;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1092" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1091"
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style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:78.25pt;
margin-top:61.85pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:65' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 103px; margin-top: 81px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 65;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1090" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1089"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:131.2pt;
margin-top:61.85pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:64' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 174px; margin-top: 81px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 64;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1089" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1088"
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margin-top:87.2pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:63' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 156px; margin-top: 115px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 63;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image009.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1088" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1087"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:60.05pt;
margin-top:86.65pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:62' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 79px; margin-top: 115px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 62;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1087" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_2"
o:spid="_x0000_i1046" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="1b" style='width:96.75pt;
height:102.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.jpg"
o:title="1b" gain="52429f" blacklevel="6554f"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="1b" height="137" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="129" /><!--[endif]--></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kubus mulia (FCC)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval
id="_x0000_s1063" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;
margin-left:112.5pt;margin-top:32.75pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:38'
filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 149px; margin-top: 43px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 38;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1063" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1068"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:74pt;margin-top:41.25pt;
width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:43' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 98px; margin-top: 54px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 43;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1068" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1067"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:86.5pt;
margin-top:3.75pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:42' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 114px; margin-top: 4px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 42;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image015.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1067" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1066"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:63pt;margin-top:21.75pt;
width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:41' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 83px; margin-top: 28px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 41;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1066" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1065"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:100.5pt;
margin-top:12.75pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:40' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 133px; margin-top: 16px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 40;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1065" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1064"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:120.5pt;
margin-top:21.75pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:39' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 160px; margin-top: 28px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 39;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1064" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1062"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:141.5pt;
margin-top:3.75pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:37' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 188px; margin-top: 4px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 37;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1062" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1061"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:141pt;
margin-top:60.25pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:36' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 187px; margin-top: 79px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 36;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image017.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1061" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1060"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:130.5pt;
margin-top:41.75pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:35' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 173px; margin-top: 55px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 35;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1060" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1059"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:101pt;
margin-top:69.75pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:34' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 134px; margin-top: 92px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 34;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1059" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1058"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:90.5pt;
margin-top:46.75pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:33' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 120px; margin-top: 61px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 33;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1058" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1057"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:86pt;margin-top:59.25pt;
width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:32' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 114px; margin-top: 78px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 32;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1057" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1056"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:63pt;margin-top:77.25pt;
width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:31' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 83px; margin-top: 102px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 31;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1056" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1055"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:120pt;
margin-top:76.75pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:30' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 159px; margin-top: 101px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 30;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image017.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1055" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_3"
o:spid="_x0000_i1045" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="1c" style='width:105pt;height:90pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.jpg"
o:title="1c" gain="52429f" blacklevel="6554f"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="1c" height="120" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="140" /><!--[endif]--></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kubus Dalam (BCC)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1086"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:101.95pt;
margin-top:68.3pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:61' strokecolor="white"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 135px; margin-top: 90px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 61;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image021.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1086" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1085"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:89.85pt;
margin-top:45.7pt;width:9.8pt;height:9pt;z-index:60' strokecolor="white"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 119px; margin-top: 60px; position: absolute; width: 15px; z-index: 60;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1085" width="15" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1084"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:76.6pt;
margin-top:41.3pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:59' strokecolor="white"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 101px; margin-top: 54px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 59;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image023.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1084" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1083"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:100.65pt;
margin-top:13.2pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:58' strokecolor="white"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 133px; margin-top: 17px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 58;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image024.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1083" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1082"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:130.4pt;
margin-top:43.7pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:57' strokecolor="white"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 173px; margin-top: 57px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 57;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image025.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1082" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1077"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:99pt;margin-top:35.8pt;
width:18pt;height:18pt;z-index:52' filled="f">
<v:fill opacity="58982f"/>
</v:oval><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 26px; left: 0px; margin-left: 131px; margin-top: 47px; position: absolute; width: 26px; z-index: 52;"><img height="26" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image026.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1077" width="26" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1080"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;flip:y;z-index:55' from="91.1pt,21.65pt"
to="127.1pt,66.65pt">
<v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/>
</v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 62px; left: 0px; margin-left: 120px; margin-top: 28px; position: absolute; width: 50px; z-index: 55;"><img height="62" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image027.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1080" width="50" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1081"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:56' from="1in,21.65pt"
to="2in,66.65pt">
<v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/>
</v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 62px; left: 0px; margin-left: 95px; margin-top: 28px; position: absolute; width: 98px; z-index: 56;"><img height="62" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image028.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1081" width="98" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1079"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;z-index:54' from="90pt,3.65pt"
to="126pt,84.65pt">
<v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/>
</v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 110px; left: 0px; margin-left: 119px; margin-top: 4px; position: absolute; width: 50px; z-index: 54;"><img height="110" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image029.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1079" width="50" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line id="_x0000_s1078"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;flip:y;z-index:53' from="66.3pt,11.35pt"
to="147.3pt,83.35pt">
<v:stroke dashstyle="dash"/>
</v:line><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 98px; left: 0px; margin-left: 87px; margin-top: 14px; position: absolute; width: 110px; z-index: 53;"><img height="98" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image030.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1078" width="110" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1075"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:63pt;margin-top:21.65pt;
width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:50' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 83px; margin-top: 28px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 50;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image031.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1075" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1074"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:120.5pt;
margin-top:21.65pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:49' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 160px; margin-top: 28px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 49;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image032.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1074" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1073"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:141.5pt;
margin-top:3.65pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:48' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 188px; margin-top: 4px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 48;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image032.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1073" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1072"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:141pt;
margin-top:60.15pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:47' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 187px; margin-top: 79px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 47;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image033.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1072" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1071"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:86pt;margin-top:59.15pt;
width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:46' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 114px; margin-top: 78px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 46;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image032.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1071" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1070"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:63pt;margin-top:77.15pt;
width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:45' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 83px; margin-top: 102px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 45;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image031.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1070" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1069"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:120pt;
margin-top:76.65pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:44' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 159px; margin-top: 101px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 44;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image033.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1069" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1076"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:86.5pt;
margin-top:3.65pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:51' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 114px; margin-top: 4px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 51;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image034.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1076" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_4"
o:spid="_x0000_i1044" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="1c" style='width:105pt;height:90pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.jpg"
o:title="1c" gain="53740f" blacklevel="6554f"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="1c" height="120" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image035.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_4" width="140" /><!--[endif]--></span></div>
<h1 style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">Tetragonal<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">ST ( Simple Tetragonal)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">BCT (Body Centered Tetragonal)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">a = b </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1025"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675815">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US">c</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">a = b = g = 90<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval
id="_x0000_s1054" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;
margin-left:229.5pt;margin-top:8.05pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:29'
filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 305px; margin-top: 10px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 29;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image031.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1054" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1053"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:204.5pt;
margin-top:21.05pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:28' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 272px; margin-top: 27px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 28;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image038.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1053" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1052"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:261pt;
margin-top:20.55pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:27' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 347px; margin-top: 26px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 27;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image039.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1052" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1051"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:283.5pt;
margin-top:8.55pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:26' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 377px; margin-top: 10px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 26;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image039.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1051" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1050"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:282pt;
margin-top:97.05pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:25' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 375px; margin-top: 128px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 25;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image039.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1050" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1049"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:228.5pt;
margin-top:95.05pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:24' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 304px; margin-top: 126px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 24;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image040.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1049" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1048"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:204.5pt;
margin-top:108.05pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:23' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 272px; margin-top: 143px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 23;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image038.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1048" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1047"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:260pt;
margin-top:109.55pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:22' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 346px; margin-top: 145px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 22;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image038.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1047" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1046"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:382pt;
margin-top:24.55pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:21' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 508px; margin-top: 32px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 21;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image041.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1046" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1045"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:405pt;
margin-top:8.55pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:20' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 539px; margin-top: 10px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 20;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image039.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1045" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1044"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:347.5pt;
margin-top:8.05pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:19' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 462px; margin-top: 10px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 19;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image041.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1044" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1043"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:325.5pt;
margin-top:24.55pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:18' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 433px; margin-top: 32px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 18;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image031.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1043" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1042"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:347pt;
margin-top:92.55pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:17' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 462px; margin-top: 122px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 17;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image042.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1042" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1041"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:403pt;
margin-top:95.05pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:16' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 536px; margin-top: 126px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 16;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image041.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1041" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1040"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:380.5pt;
margin-top:109.05pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:15' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 506px; margin-top: 144px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 15;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image043.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1040" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1039"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:324pt;
margin-top:108.55pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:14' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 431px; margin-top: 144px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 14;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image031.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1039" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1038"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:363.5pt;
margin-top:59.55pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:13' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 484px; margin-top: 78px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 13;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image042.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1038" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_6" o:spid="_x0000_i1043" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="2" style='width:393pt;
height:126pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image044.jpg"
o:title="2" gain="55050f" blacklevel="6554f"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="2" height="168" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image045.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_6" width="524" /><!--[endif]--></span></div>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%;">Orthorombic<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">SO (Simpel Orthorombic)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">FCO (Face Centerred
Orthorombic)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">BCO (Body Centerred
Orthorombik)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">a </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt'
o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1026" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1026"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675816">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US">b </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt'
o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1027" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1027"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675817">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US">c</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">g = b = a = 90<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1112" style='position:absolute;
left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:311.6pt;margin-top:154.3pt;width:9pt;
height:9pt;z-index:87' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 414px; margin-top: 205px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 87;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image046.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1112" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1111"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:297pt;
margin-top:145.95pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:86' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 395px; margin-top: 194px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 86;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image047.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1111" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1110"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:346.7pt;
margin-top:146.6pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:85' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 461px; margin-top: 194px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 85;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image048.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1110" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1109"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:326.9pt;
margin-top:163.95pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:84' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 435px; margin-top: 218px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 84;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image049.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1109" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1108"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:277.05pt;
margin-top:163.3pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:83' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 368px; margin-top: 217px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 83;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image050.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1108" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1107"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:277.15pt;
margin-top:111.9pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:82' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 369px; margin-top: 148px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 82;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image051.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1107" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1106"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:325.05pt;
margin-top:111.9pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:81' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 432px; margin-top: 148px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 81;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image052.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1106" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1105"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:310.45pt;
margin-top:102.25pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:80' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 413px; margin-top: 135px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 80;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image053.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1105" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1104"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:343.4pt;
margin-top:93.9pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:79' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 457px; margin-top: 124px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 79;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image054.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1104" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1103"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:297pt;
margin-top:93.9pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:78' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 395px; margin-top: 124px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 78;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image033.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1103" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1102"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:237.25pt;
margin-top:93.25pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:77' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 315px; margin-top: 123px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 77;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image055.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1102" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1101"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:218.6pt;
margin-top:110.6pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:76' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 290px; margin-top: 146px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 76;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image056.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1101" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:oval id="_x0000_s1100"
style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:190.3pt;
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style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:169.7pt;
margin-top:162.65pt;width:9pt;height:9pt;z-index:70' filled="f"/><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="height: 14px; left: 0px; margin-left: 225px; margin-top: 216px; position: absolute; width: 14px; z-index: 70;"><img height="14" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image060.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1095" width="14" /></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_9" o:spid="_x0000_i1042" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="3" style='width:324.75pt;
height:270.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image061.jpg"
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</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="3" height="361" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image062.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_9" width="433" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Rhombohedral</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">a = b = c</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">a = b = g <span style="position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt'
o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1028" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1028"
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_11" o:spid="_x0000_i1041"
type="#_x0000_t75" alt="4" style='width:148.5pt;height:126.75pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image063.jpg"
o:title="4" gain="55050f" blacklevel="6554f"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="4" height="169" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image064.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_11" width="198" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="5" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Heksagonal<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">a = b </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1029" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">a = 120<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">SH (Simple Heksagonal)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_13" o:spid="_x0000_i1040"
type="#_x0000_t75" alt="5" style='width:126.75pt;height:114.75pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image065.jpg"
o:title="5" gain="55050f" blacklevel="5243f"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="5" height="153" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image066.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_13" width="169" /><!--[endif]--></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="6" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Monoklinik<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">SM
(Simple Monoklinik)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">BCM
(Base Centerred Monoklinik)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">a </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1030" type="#_x0000_t75"
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<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1030" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1031" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">g <span style="position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1032"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1032" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1032"
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</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span>b<span style="position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1033" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1033" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1033"
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</o:OLEObject>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_18"
o:spid="_x0000_i1039" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="6" style='width:100.5pt;
height:110.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image067.jpg"
o:title="6" gain="52429f" blacklevel="5243f"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="6" height="147" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image068.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_18" width="134" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="7" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Triklinik<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">a </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1034" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1034" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1034"
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</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US">b </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol; position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1035" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt'
o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1035" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1035"
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</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US">c</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;">a <span style="position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1036"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1036" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1036"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675828">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span>b<span style="position: relative; top: 2pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1037" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:11.25pt;height:11.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image036.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="15" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image037.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1037" width="15" /><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1037"
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</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span>g = 90<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:line
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<table align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td height="20" width="59"></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td><img height="190" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image069.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1026 _x0000_s1027 _x0000_s1028 _x0000_s1029 _x0000_s1030 _x0000_s1031 _x0000_s1032 _x0000_s1033 _x0000_s1034 _x0000_s1035 _x0000_s1036 _x0000_s1037" width="110" /></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<br clear="ALL" />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span>2. 1. 5 . Diagram Fasa Fe<sub>3</sub>C <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_23"
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Fase Yang Terbentuk :<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ferit ( besi )<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Merupakan
larutan padat karbon dalam besi dan kandungan karbon dalam besi maksimum 0,025%
pada temperatur 723 C. Pada temperatur kamar, kandungan karbonnya 0,008%. Sifat
ferit adalah lunak, ulet dan tahan korosi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">sementit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">merupakan
senyawa logam yang mempunyai kekerasan tinggi atau berkeras diantara
fasa-fasanya yang mungkin terjadi pada baja mengandung 6,67% kadar karbon,
walaupun sangat keras tapi bersifat getas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">austenit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">merupakan
larutan padat intertisi antara karbon dan besi yang mempunyai sel satuan BCC
yang stabil pada temperatur 912°C dengan sifat yang lunak tapi ulet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">perlit (α+Fe<sub>3</sub>C)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">merupakan
elektroid yang terdiri dari 2 fasa yaitu terit dan sementit. Kedua fasa ini
tersusun dari bentuk yang halus. Perlit hanya dapat terjadi di bawah 723 C.
Sifatnya kuat dan tahan terhadap korosi serta kandungan karbonnya 0,83%.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ladeburit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Merupakan
susunan elektrolit sengan kandungan karbonnya 4,3% yaitu campuran perlit dan
sementit. Sifatnya halus dan getas karena sementit yang banyak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">besi delta (γ)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">merupakan
fasa yang berada antara temperatur 1400 <i>°</i>C
– 1535<i>°</i>C dan mempunyai sel satuan BCC
( sel satuan kubus ) karbon yang larut sampai 0,1%<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Perbandingan yang dilakukan dengan
menggunakan media pendingin berbagai jenis seperti oli, air garam, air, solar
dan udara tergantung pada kecepatan pendinginan yang diinginkan. Kecepatan
pendinginan adalah turunnya pendinginan pada waktu dimasukkan dalam
derajat/detik. Kecepatan pendinginan<span>
</span>mempengaruhi akan kekerasan bahan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Laku panas adalah proses yang memanaskan
bahan sampai suhu tertentu dan kemudian didinginkan menurut cara tertentu.
Tujuan pengerjaan panas itu adalah untuk memberikan sifat yang lebih sempurna
pada bahan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">2.2. Standarisasi Baja</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Amerika Serikat</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">ASTM ( American Society for
Testing Materials )</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Strogen Steel (H<sub>3</sub>
9M-94)</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">High Strength Low alloy
Structure Steel (H<sub>2</sub> 42M-93a) </span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>o<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Low and Intermediate tensile
Strength carbon silicon, steel plate for machine pane and general construction (A
284M-38)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">High Steel Strength. Quenhead
and Temporal alloy steel plate euatable for andirum (A 514-94m)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Structural Steel mide 290 MPa
minimum Yield point (BMM) maximum</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">High Strongth Low alloy
alambium vanadium steel of structural quality (43,72m-94a)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Structural carbon steel plate
of improved longers (AS 37M-93a)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">High Strength Low alloy
Structural Steel 345 MPa minimum yield point 100 mm thickness (AS 88M-94a)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Normalized high Strength Low
alloy Structural Steel (A633-94a)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Low carbonate hardening, nikel copped
evanium monodin, corombium and nikel copper columbion allow steel (A710M-94)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Hot road stuktural steel high
Strength Low alloy plate with improved in ability (A 610 M-93a)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Quenhead and tempered carbon
steel plates for structural aniration (A 678-94a)</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">AISI (Americal Iron and Steel
Institute) and SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Baja menurut standarisasi AISI dan
SAE merupakan spesifikasi dengan loxx digunakan untuk paduan yang sangat
minimal. Contoh baja AISI, SAE 1445, ini berarti kandungan karbonnya adalah
0,4% dengan paduan uranium (0,4%-1,4%)</span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Menurut UNS (United Numbering
System)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Baja menurut standar UNS hampir sama
dengan standar AISI dan SAE, hanya saja menggunakan huruf di depan ditambah
lima digit untuk jenis tambahan lainnya misalnya baja AISI,SAE A 0,70% UNS
menjadi G41070 di mana awalnya G untuk baja karbon paduan rendah.</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Jepang (JIS = <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Japan</st1:country-region></st1:place> Industrial Standar)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Rolled Steel for general
structural (G 3101-87)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Rolled Steel for walled
structural (G 3106-92)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Hot Rolled Atmosphetle corrosion
resisting steel (G 3128-87)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Hot Yield Strength Steel plate
for walled structural (G 3128-87)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Superior atmosphere corrosion
resistant steel (G 3215-87)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Standarisasi
Jerman (DIN = Deutsche Industrie Norm.)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Steel for general structural
purposes (17100-80)</span></div>
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(17102-83)</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Structural Steel Imprived
atmosphere votection vistance (H 35-502-DA)</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">2.1.5 KERAMIK</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Keramik adalah
bahan padat anorganik yang bukan logam. Barang yang terbuat dari keramik
seperi: keramik cina, porselen, gelas, semen, refraktori (bahan tahan api),
sejak dahulu telah dipergunakan dalam kehidupan manusi sehari-hari. Bahan
keramik adalah bahan dasar penyusun kerak bumi, yaitu: SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, MgO,
K2O, Na2O dan seterusnya, yang banyak tersedia di alam SiO2, Al2o3 atau MgO
masing-masing dapat dipakai sebagai bahan keramik tersendiri,sedangkan banyak
bahan lainnya yang terdiri dari campuran silikat tunggal atau campuran dari
berbagai silikat. Bahan baku dari keramik cina dan porselen adalah tanah liat
yaitu kaolin, serisit dan seterusnya dan silikat yaitu kuarsa felspark dan
seterusnya, yang diaduk dicetak dan dibakar sehingga menjadi produk. Selama
pembakaran bahan-bahan tersebtu bereaksi satu sama lain. Silikat agak berbeda,
dari bahan baku dibentuk mulit (3Al2O3. 2SiO2) dan gelas, sehingga dapat dibuat
produk yang sifat-sifatnya berbeda dari bahan bakunya.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Sifat-sifat Bahan Keramik</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Berbagai jenis
keramik termasuk semen, bata untuk bangunan bata tahan api dan gelas telah
dipergunakan sejak lama sebagai bahan konstruksi bangunan. Bidang penggunaan
baru bagi keramik sebagai bahan konstruksi telah dikembangkan sebagai mana
telah terlihat secara luas mengenai karbida silicon (SiC) dan nitride silicon
(Si3N4) sebagai bahan untuk turbin dan motor yang sangat efisien. Pada umumnya
keramik memiliki sifat-sifat yang baik yaitu keras kuat dan stabil pada
temperature tinggi. Tetapi keramik bersifat getas dan mudah patah seperti
halnya pada porselen, keramik cina ataupun gelas. </span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Kekuatan dan Patahan Teoritis <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Dalam tingkatan
ato, patahan suatu zat padat merupakan pemisahan ikatan masing-masing dari atom
dan ion untuk membentuk dua permukaan baru.</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Kekuatan dan Struktur<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Kekuatan keramik
sensitive terhadap struktur. Factor utama yang mempengaruhi struktur keramik da
juga kekuatannya ialah kehalusan permukaan , volum dan bentuk dari <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">pori</st1:city></st1:place>, ukurna dan bentuk
butir, jenis dan bentuk fasa-batas butir dan cacat yang disebabkan oleh
tegangan thermal. </span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Kekerasan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Kekerasan yang
dimiliki intan (kekerasan Mohs 10) dan korundum (kekerasan Mohs 9), adalah
salah satu cirri khas bahan keramik dengan kekerasannya yang tinggi. Kekerasan
adalah ukuran tahanan bahan terhadap deformasi plastic pada permukaan bahan.
Beberapa cara pengukuran kekerasan telah ditetapkan dengan cara deformasi yang
berbeda. Salah satu cara adalah kekersan Mohs, sedangkan cara pengukuran
kekerasan Vickers, Brinell, dan Knoop dipakai dalam industri.</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Kekuatan pada temperature tinggi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Keramik memiliki
ketahanan thermal dan kestabilan kimia dan mempunyai kemnungkinana penggunaan
pada temperature tinggi sebagai bahan teknik yang barul, yang tidak dapat
dilaksanakan dengan bahan loga. Penuruna yang cept dari kekuatan dan deformasi
plastic sering juga ditemukan dalam bahan keramik pada temperature melebihi
1000 C.</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">SIFAT THERMAL<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Titik Cair</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Titk
cair dari kristal adalah temperature dimana energi bebas Gibbs dari fasa padat
dan fasa cair adalah sama. Sejalan dengan itu titik cair tidak dapat ditentukan
dari analisa sederhana pada fasa padat saja tetapi pendekatan mengenai titik
cair secara intuisi dan mudah dimengerti. </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Energi
yang dieperlukan untuk menaikkan temperature 1 K dari bahan disebut kapasitas
panas. harga tersebut pada tekanan tetap disebut kapasitas panas tekanan tetap
(Cp) dan pada kondisi volume tetap disebtu kapasitas panas volum tetap (Cv).</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Pemuaian Thermal</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Gejala
pertambahan volume bahan mengikuti peningkatan temperature disebut pemuaian
termal.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Panas
dipindahkan dngan tiga macam mekanisme yaitu konduksi,konveksi dan
radiasi.Ketiga mekanisme tersebutsecara umum terlihat dalam proses perpindahn
panas secara umum.</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Tegangan Thermal dan Tahanan
Kejut Thermal</span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Sifat Listrik dan Magnet<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Pita energi dan hantaran listrik.
Untuk mengetahui hantaran listrik oleh electron pada atom yang terpisah
ditempatkan pada orbital tertentu sekeliling inti yaitu orbital s, p, d,
f. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Konduktor Ion. Bahan yang
menghantarkan listrik karena pergerakan ion melalui bentuk padat, bahan
yang memiliki konduktivitas ion pada temperature cukup rendah disebut
elektrolit zat padat yang dipergunakan untuk sensor potensial kimia.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Polarisasi dan Dielektrisitas.
Kalau medan listrik bekerja diluar isolator terjadi perpindahan dan
deformasi dalam distribusi electron dalam ion dan posisi tempat ion dapat
berubah sedikit bagi beberapa jenis bahan.</span></li>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Sifat-sifat Lainnya<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Sifat optik, hubungan antara
keramik dan cahaya adalah sangat erat dan telah lama dipakai pada kaca
jendela, peralatan gelas, gelas optic, pigmen. Pengembangan yang baru
mencakup serat optic untuk system komunikasi dan informasi dan bahan optic
yang indeks bias dan transmisi cahayanya berubah dengan medan listrik dan <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">medan</st1:city></st1:place> magnetic yang
diterapkan.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">Sifat Kimia, salah satu sifat khas
dari keramik adalah kestabilan kimia. Tetapi slag dan gelas berfusi pada
temperature tinggi merusak bata tahan api</span></li>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></div>
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<span>2.1.5. BAHAN LOGAM<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span><span> </span>Logam dapat dibagi dalam
dua golongan yaitu logam ferro atau logam besi dan logam nonferro atau logam
bukan besi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Logam ferro adalah suatu logam paduan yang terdiri
dari paduan unsur karbon dan besi. Untuk menghasilkan suatu logam paduan yang
mempunyai sifat yang berbeda dengan besi dan karbon maka dicampur dengan bermacam
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<span><span> </span>Jenis-jenis
logam ferro adalah sebagai berikut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>Besi tuang <o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<span>Komposisinya yaitu campuran besi dan karbon. Kadar
karbon sekitar 4%, sifatnya rapuh tidak dapat ditempa, baik untuk dituang, liat
dalam pemadatan, lemah dalam tegangan. Digunakan untuk membuat alat mesin, meja
perata, badan ragum, bagian-bagian mesin bubut, blok silinder dan cincint
torak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span>Komposisi besi tempa terdiri dari 99%<span> </span>besi murni, sifat dapat ditempa, liat, dan
tidak dapat dicor. Besi tempa antara lain dapat digunakan untuk membuat rantai
jangkar, kait keran, dan landasan kerja pelat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>Baja lunak<o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<span>Komposisi campuran besi dan karbon, kadar karbon
0,1% sampai 3%, mempunyai sifat dapat ditempa dan liat. Digunakan untuk membuat
mur, sekrup, pipa, dan keperluan umum dalam pembangunan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>Baja karbon
tinggi<o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<span>Komposisi campuran besi dan karbon, kadar karbon
0,7 sampai 1,5%. Sifat dapat ditempa, dapat disepuh keras, dan dimudahkan.
Digunakan untuk membuat kikir, pahat, gergaji, tap, stempel, dan alat mesin
bubut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>Baja karbon
sedang<o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<span>Komposisi campuran besi dan karbon, kadar karbon
0,4% sampai 0,6%. Sifat lebih kenyal dari yang keras. Digunakan untuk membuat
benda kerja tempa berat, poros, dan rel baja.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="6" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>Baja karbon
tinggi dengan campuran<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Komposisi baja karbon tinggi ditambah nikel atau
kobalt, krom atau tungsten. Sifat rapuh, tahan suhu tinggi tanpa kehilangan
kekerasan, dapat disepuh keras, dan dimudakan. Digunakan untuk membuat mesin
bubut dan alat mesin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Logam Nonferro<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span><span> </span>Logam Nonferro yaitu logam
yang tidak mengandung unsur besi (Fe). Logam nonferro antara lain sebagai
berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Tembaga (Cu)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Warna coklat kemerah-merahan, sifatnya dapat
ditempa, liat, baik untuk penghantar panas, listrik, dan kukuh. Tembaga
digunakan untuk membuat suku cadang bagian listrik, radio penerangan, dan
alat-alat dekorasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Alumunium (Al)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Warna biru putih. Sifatnya dapat ditempa, liat,
bobot ringan, penghantar panas dan listrik yang baik mampu dituang. Alumunium
digunakan untuk membuat peralatan masak, elektronik, industri mobil, dan
industri pesawat terbang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Timbel (Pb)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Warna biru kelabu, sifatny dapat ditempa, sangat
liat, tahan korosi, air asam, dan bobot sangat berat. Timbel digunakan sebagai
bahan pembuat kabel, baterai, bubungan atap, dan bahan pengisi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>d.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Timah (Sn)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Warna bening keperak-perakan, sifatnya dapat
ditempa, liat, dan tahan korosi. Timh digunakan<span>
</span>sebagai pelapis bahan lembaran baja lunak (pelat timah) dan industri
pengawetan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span>2.1.5. PLASTIK<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span><span> </span>Plastik merupakan bahan
yang sangat penting dalam dunia permesinan dan industri modern. Plastik adalah
sintesis berasal dari minyak mineral, gas alam, atau dibuat dari bahan asal
batu bara, batu kapur, udara, air, dan juga dari binatang dan tumbuh-tumbuhan.
Pengolahannya biasanya dikerjakan pada proses panas dan tekanan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span><span> </span>Sifat-sifat plastik pada
umumnya adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="6" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>tahan korosi<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>berat jenisnya
cukup rendah<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>beberapa cukup
ulet dan kuat, tetapi kekuatannya dibawah logam<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>kebanyakan
bahan thermoplastic mulai melunak pada suhu yang sangat rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span><span> </span>Bahan plastik terdiri atas
:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Termosetting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span>Bahan ini keras dan mempunyai daya tahan panas
yang tinggi. Bahan-bahan termosetting adalah sebagai berikut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Fenol formaldehid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt;">
<span>Bahan-bahan termosetting digunakan secara umum
adanya polimer dasar dari fenol dan formal dehid. Hasil polimer murni berwarna
putih susu dan lama-kelamaan menjadi gelap. Pada prinsip fenol formaldehid
digunakan untuk perawatan mesin, listrik, pegangan pintu, dan lain sebagainya. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Melamin formaldehid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt;">
<span>Bahan ini dihasilkan dengan materi yang sama dan
mempunyai sifat yang serupa dengan fenol formaldehid atau urea formal dehid.
Jenis pemakaiannya yaitu untuk alat-alat makan, peralatan rumah tangga, untuk
bagian larutan dan lain sebagainya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Urea formaldehid<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt;">
<span>Urea resin lebih murah daripada fenolik, warna
lebih cerah dan macam warna tak terbatas, disamping itu tidak berbau, tidak ada
rasa dan tahan air. Selain sebagai lem yang tahan basah juga digunakan untuk
tutup botol, peralatan makan dan sebagainya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Thermoplastik
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span><span> </span>Thermoplastik tersusu dari
molekul-molekul panjang. Jikalau melokul panjang itu diumpamakan sebagai sebuah
garis yang ditarik dan kita letakkan umpamanya dua buah molekul panjang
berdampingan maka memperlihatkan suatu gambaran dari suatu thermoplstik dalam
keadaan padat. Bahan-bahan thermoplastik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>Polietilene <o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Polietilene terjadi dari polimerisasi etiler,
polimer dasar dicampur dengan bermacam-macam tambahan untuk menghasilkan bahan
yang cocok untuk dituang. Penggunaan pokok untuk isolasi listrik, alat-alat
dapur, boneka, dan sebagai lembaran untuk membungkus. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>Polivinil
Klorida (PVC)<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>PVC mempunyai sifat yang tahan zat kimia dan
larutan keras, untuk membuat tangki kimia, pipa-pipa, isolasi kawat listrik,
mantel, dan sebagainya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>Polistiren<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Polistiren adalah bahan yang rapuh dan transparan,
dengan mencampurakan bahan-bahan yang lain, suatu polistirene yang ulet degan
ketahanan tumbuh dapat dihasilkan dan kini sangat lunak digunakan sebagai bahan
cetak. Polistirene kebanyakan digunakan dalam perlengkapan listrik, bagian dari
refrigerator, tempat makan, boneka, dan busa padat untuk isolasi, dan paking.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span>Poliamide dan
poliester<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Dihasilkan dengan reaksi kondensasi polimerisasi,
nama yang umum untuk poliamide linear adalah nylon. Nylon termasuk grup bahan
yang sangat kuat, ulet, dan juga mempunyai ketahanan gesek. Biasanya cukup
fleksibel dan dengan ketahanan tumbuk yang tinggi. Digunakan untuk membuat
serat dan dibuat seara ekstruksi dari keadaan cair seperti halnya membuat serat
nylon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span>2.1.5. KOMPOSIT<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span><span> </span>Komposit terdiri dari dua
atau lebih komponen yang menyatu menjadi satu bahan. Termasuk dalam kelompok
ini<span> </span>: bahan yang diberi lapisan, dan
kombinasi lain yang memanfaatkan sifat khusus beberapa bahan yang ada.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span><span> </span>Biasanya sifat bahan yang
menyatu dalam komposit dapat dievaluasi dan diuji secara terpisah. Hal ini
mengarah ke penyusunan kaidah campuran sehingga sifat komposit dapat dihitung
berdasarkan sifat komponennya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span><span> </span>Ada dua halyang perlu
diperhatikan pada komposit yang diperkuat agar membentuk produk yang efektif.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>komponen penguat harus memiliki modulus elastis
yang tinggi dari pada komponen matriksnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>harus ada ikatan permukaan yang kuat antara
komponen penguat dan matriks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 9pt; text-indent: -9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>1.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Kombinasi bahan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span>Komposit terdiri dari dua bahan yang berbeda yang
membentuk suatu kesatuan. Jadi, beton bertulang merupakan komposit yang terdiri
dari besi beton dalam matriks beton. Contoh lain adalah baja berlapis gelas
untuk pelapis bejana pemanas air dan batu gerinda yang diperbuat dengan
jaringan searat – gelas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span><span> </span>Sifat komposit dipelajari
dan dianalisis berdasarkan sifat komponen masing- masing Maka berlakulah kaidah
campuran, disini sifat tergantung pada jumlah dan distribusi geometrik
masing-masing komponen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -36pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span>Komposit dengan kekakuan tinggi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span>Karena komposit polimer ruangan, bahan ini menarik
perhatian ahli desainer. Komposit memiliki kekuatan tarik Su, rendah dari pada
baja rasio kekuatan / kerapatan, Su/</span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>r</span></span><span>, tinggi. Pada kompressi rasio modulus elastis
atau kerapatan E/</span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>r</span></span><span> merupakan kriteria desain yang lebih baik. Sebagian besar bahan mempunyai
harga yang bersamaan. Komposisi gelas pelastik 50/50mempunyai E/</span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>r</span></span><span> sebesar 20000 N/kg. Nilai agak rendah dijumpai
pada komposisi buatan, pelastik yang diperkuat harus mengandung sekitar 70 </span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>°</span></span><span>c volume gelas untuk mencapai E/</span><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>r</span></span><span> logam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span>4.5 PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span>4.5.1 Pembahasan Umum<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span>- </span></b><span>Hubungan Logam Dengan HT+------------------</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 9pt; text-indent: 9pt;">
<span><span> </span>Logam
dapat dibagi dalam dua golongan yaitu logam ferro atau logam besi dan <span> </span>logam nonferro atau logam bukan besi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span><span> </span>1. Logam Ferro (Besi)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span>Logam ferro adalah suatu logam paduan yang terdiri
dari paduan unsur karbon dan besi. Untuk menghasilkan suatu logam paduan yang
mempunyai sifat yang berbeda dengan besi dan karbon maka dicampur dengan
bermacam logam lainnya<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span><span> </span>Jenis-jenis
logam ferro adalah sebagai berikut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span>a. Besi tuang <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Komposisinya yaitu campuran besi dan karbon. Kadar
karbon sekitar 4%, sifatnya rapuh tidak dapat ditempa, baik untuk dituang, liat
dalam pemadatan, lemah dalam tegangan. Digunakan untuk membuat alat mesin, meja
perata, badan ragum, bagian-bagian mesin bubut, blok silinder dan cincint
torak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span>b. Besi tempa<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Komposisi besi tempa terdiri dari 99%<span> </span>besi murni, sifat dapat ditempa, liat, dan
tidak dapat dicor. Besi tempa antara lain dapat digunakan untuk membuat rantai
jangkar, kait keran, dan landasan kerja pelat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span>c. Baja lunak<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Komposisi campuran besi dan karbon, kadar karbon
0,1% sampai 3%, mempunyai sifat dapat ditempa dan liat. Digunakan untuk membuat
mur, sekrup, pipa, dan keperluan umum dalam pembangunan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<span>d. Baja karbon tinggi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Komposisi campuran besi dan karbon, kadar karbon
0,7 sampai 1,5%. Sifat dapat ditempa, dapat disepuh keras, dan dimudahkan.
Digunakan untuk membuat kikir, pahat, gergaji, tap, stempel, dan alat mesin
bubut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span><span> </span>e. Baja karbon sedang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Komposisi campuran besi dan karbon, kadar karbon
0,4% sampai 0,6%. Sifat lebih kenyal dari yang keras. Digunakan untuk membuat
benda kerja tempa berat, poros, dan rel baja.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span><span> </span>f. Baja karbon tinggi dengan
campuran<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Komposisi baja karbon tinggi ditambah nikel atau
kobalt, krom atau tungsten. Sifat rapuh, tahan suhu tinggi tanpa kehilangan
kekerasan, dapat disepuh keras, dan dimudakan. Digunakan untuk membuat mesin
bubut dan alat mesin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 9pt;">
<span><span> </span>2. Logam
Nonferro<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span><span> </span><span> </span>Logam Nonferro yaitu logam yang tidak
mengandung unsur besi (Fe). Logam <span> </span>nonferro
antara lain sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span><span> </span>a.Tembaga (Cu)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Warna coklat kemerah-merahan, sifatnya dapat
ditempa, liat, baik untuk penghantar panas, listrik, dan kukuh. Tembaga
digunakan untuk membuat suku cadang bagian listrik, radio penerangan, dan
alat-alat dekorasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span><span> </span>b.Alumunium (Al)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Warna biru putih. Sifatnya dapat ditempa, liat,
bobot ringan, penghantar panas dan listrik yang baik mampu dituang. Alumunium
digunakan untuk membuat peralatan masak, elektronik, industri mobil, dan
industri pesawat terbang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span><span> </span>c.Timbel (Pb)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: 9pt;">
<span><span> </span>Warna
biru kelabu, sifatny dapat ditempa, sangat liat, tahan korosi, air asam, dan <span> </span>bobot sangat berat. Timbel digunakan sebagai
bahan pembuat kabel, baterai, <span> </span>bubungan
atap, dan bahan pengisi.<span>
</span><span> </span>d.Timah (Sn)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<span>Warna bening keperak-perakan, sifatnya dapat
ditempa, liat, dan tahan korosi. Timh digunakan<span>
</span>sebagai pelapis bahan lembaran baja lunak (pelat timah) dan industri
pengawetan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt;">
<br /></div>piamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5458366533732204239.post-58593867282862604262012-02-13T06:02:00.001-08:002012-02-13T06:02:47.081-08:00hardness test<link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_oledata.mso" rel="OLE-Object-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]>
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<![endif]-->
</m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac><br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-ID">BAB I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-ID">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -36pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-ID"><span>1.</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-ID">1<span> </span>Latar Belakang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-ID"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-ID">Dalam
perkembangan dunia industri terutama yang berhubungan dengan masalah pemilihan
bahan dan penggunannya, maka dalam proses produksinya banyak hal atau kriteria
yang harus dipenuhi agar material tersebut dapat digunakan dalam dunia
industri.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-ID"><span> </span>Untuk
penggunaan sebagai bahan industri sifat-sifat khas dari material logam harus
diketahui, sebab logam tersebut akan digunakan untuk berbagai untuk berbagai
macam keperluan dan berbagai macam keadaan. Sifat logam tersebut meliputi sifat
mekaniknya, sifat-sifat termal, sifat kimia, kemampuan di mesin, kemampuan
kerasan dan lain-lain. Adapun dalam percobaan ini yang akan diuji adalah sifat
mekanik dari logam terutama sifat kekerasannya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-ID"><span> </span>Kekerasan
didefenisikan sebagai tahanan yang dilakukan oleh bahan terhadap desakan
kedalam yang tetap, disebabkan oleh sebuah alat pendesak dengan bentuk tertentu
dibawah pengaruh <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">gaya</st1:city></st1:place>
tertentu, suatu hasil desakan yang kecil penunjukan <span> </span>kekerasan yang besar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-ID"><span> </span>Dengan
mengetahui tingkat kekerasan logam maka dapat diketahui suatu logam yang
mempunyai nilai ekonomis yang tinggi atau nilai ekonomis yang rendah, dalam
industri juga sangat diperlukan untuk menghemat biaya pemeliharaan atau
penggantian bahan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-ID"><span> </span>Kekerasan
suatu bahan erat hubungannya dengan kekuatan bahan hubungan keduanya yaitu
semakin keras suatu bahan tersebut akan semakin kuat, demikian pula sebaliknya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="DE"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="DE">2 <span> </span>Tujuan dan Manfaat Pengujian<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 64.35pt; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Swiss911 XCm BT","sans-serif";"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="DE">Adapun Tujuan dari Percobaan ini meliputi:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Tujuan
Instruktual Umum (TIU):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -36pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Mengetahui
pengaruh elastik recovery terhadap kekerasan beban.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -36pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Mengetahui
distribusi kekerasan pada bahan mampu keras<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -36pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Memberikan
contoh aplikasi di lapangan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Tujuan
Instruksional Khusus (TIK):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Menjelaskan
definisi, tujuan dan prosedur pengujian kekerasan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Menentukan
nilai kekerasan logam dengan cara penekanan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Membua
grafik hubungan gaya terhadap waktu penekanan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Membuat
grafik hubungan kedalaman penekanan terhadap waktu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Mengetahui
hubungan kekerasan pada setiap proses perlakuan panas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 131.15pt; text-indent: -95.15pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: "Swiss911 XCm BT","sans-serif";"><span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="DE">Adapun Manfaat dari Pengujian:</span></b><span lang="DE"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Manfaat
pengujian bagi praktikan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Mengetahui
hasil pengerasan logam yang telah mengalami pengujian kekerasan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Mengetahui
perbedaan antara pengujian kekerasan Brinell dengan Vickers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Dapat
melakukan perhitungan pada suatu bahan yang telah melakukan pengujian
kekerasan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Manfaat
pengujian bagi dunia industri:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Dapat
menentukan tingkat kekerasan suatu produk yang digunakan dalam industri <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Dapat
menentukan unsur dari logam untuk digunakan dalam pembuatan produk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>-<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Memudahkan
dalam pemliharaan bahan yang akan digunakan pada proses pemeliharaan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="DE">BAB II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="DE">LANDASAN TEORI<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="DE">2.1 Teori Dasar<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="DE">Kekerasan
adalah suatu sifat dari bahan logam yang sangat penting karena banyak sifat
lain dari bahan logam yang berhubungan dengan kekerasan. Kekerasan ini adlaah
suatu kemampuan dari bahan untuk menahan sdeformasi plastik yang terjadi atau
perbedaan dari bahan terhadap bentuk tetap. Kekerasan berhubungan dengan
kekuatan, oleh karena itu dalam hal kekerasan suatu bahan dengan angka-angka
sudah menggambarkan kekuatan tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Kemampuan
suatu logam akan meningkat apabila kekerasan semakin meningkat, sementara kekerasan
itu sendiri dipengaruhi oleh media pendingin. Pada umumnya ada 3 cara pengujian
kekerasan, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 162pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -108pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>(a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Cara Pengoresan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 81pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -153pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>Dilakukan dengan jalan menggoreskan
bahan yang lebih keras terhadap bahan yang lebih lunak. Cara ini dikenal dengan
Hocks-Mocks. Membuat skala yang terdiri dari sepuluh standar. Mineral-mineral
yang disusun menurut kekerasan atau kemampuan mulai dengan bahan terkeras yaitu
intan kebahan yang lebih lunak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>(b)
Cara Dinamik <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 81pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -153pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Dilakukan dengan jalan menjatuhkan bola baja ke
permukaan logam dimana tinggi pantulan bola menyatakan energi pantulan sebagai
ukuran. Kekerasan cara ini disebut Share shereskop.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>(c)
Cara Penekanan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Merupakan cara umum dari pengujian kekerasan
logam yang termasuk cara ini adalah cara Brinell, Vickers, dan cara Rockwell.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 81pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -153pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><u><span lang="EN-US">Cara Brinell<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Yaitu
dengan cara menekankan bola baja pada logam, dengan suatu bahan tertentu pada
waktu<span> </span>baja ditekankan pada permukaan
logam, maka akan tampak bekas penekanan berupa sebagian dari bola baja. </span><span lang="DE">Diameter bekas penekanan diukur teliti
dengan mikroskop kekerasan Brinell diperoleh dengan perhitungan beban dibagi
dengan luas penampang bekas penekanan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype
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<v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/>
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<v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"/>
<v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"/>
<v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"/>
<v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"/>
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"/>
<v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"/>
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<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1026"
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<span lang="DE">Dimana: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>HB
= Kekerasan Brinell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>P<span> </span>= Beban<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>D<span> </span>= Diameter Bola Baja<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>D<span> </span>= Diameter Bekas Penekanan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><u><span lang="DE">Cara Vickers<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Yaitu
menggunakan intan sebagai pengganti bola baja, dengan demikian untuk
bahan-bahan keras yang dijui dengan tidak ada penyimpangan seperti halnya cara
Brinell, sudut<span> </span>yang dibentuk oleh dua
bidang dari piramida pada bekas penekanan yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:66pt;height:33pt' o:ole="">
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o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="44" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1027" width="88" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>. . . . . . . . .. . . . . (cm)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Harga kekerasan adalah : 1,854 P/d<sup>2
</sup><span> </span>. . . . . . . . . (Kg/mm<sup>2</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">Dimana: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>P<span> </span>= Beban (Kg)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>d<span> </span>= Panjang rata-rata dari baris yang
menghubungkan sudut-sudut diatas piramida bekas penekanan pada bidang permukaan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:60.75pt;height:32.25pt'
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o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="43" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1028" width="81" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -72pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><u><span lang="EN-US">Cara Rockwell<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Prinsip
kekerasan logam didasarkan pada dalamnya atau dangkalnya bekas penekanan
kerucut atau bola baja yang masuk pada logam dengan < bentuk tertentu. </span><span lang="DE">Kerucut intan dan bola baja yang sering
digunakan adalah dengan diameter = 1/6, 1/8, ¼, dan ½<span> </span>inchi. Makin keras suatu logam yang akan
dijui maka semakin dangkal masuknya bola baja atau kerucut baja. Begitu pula
sebaliknya, karena pengukuran dalamnya penekanan terbatas pada kemampuan alat
dan mengingat segi-segi praktis lainnya. Maka dibuat segi dari skala yang
disebut skala A, B, dan C.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ì<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><u><span lang="DE">Skala A<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Digunakan
pada pengukuran kekerasan logam yang sangat keras dengan menggunakan kerucut
intan dengan beban 60 Kg.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ì<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><u><span lang="DE">Skala B<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Digunakan
pada pengukuran kekerasan logam agak lunak dengan menggunakan bola baja
berukuran 1/16 inchi dengan beban 100 Kg.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>ì<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><u><span lang="DE">Skala C</span></u><span lang="DE"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Digunakan
pada pengukuran kekerasan logam yaitu yang telah dikeraskan dengan menggunakan
kerucut intan dengan penekanan 150 Kg.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><b><u>Keuntungan Dan Kerugian Metode Penekanan<o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="DE"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="DE">Brinell<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>J<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Keuntungan:<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Dengan
bekas penekanan yang besar, kekerasan rata-rata dari bahan yang tidak homogen
dapat ditentukan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>J<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Kerugian:<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Benda kerja dalam beberapa keadaan tidak
dapat digunakan karena besarnya besar penekanan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE">b. Penentuan kekerasan memerlukan waktu yang
banyak oleh karena mengukur garis tengah besar tekanan dan menekan peluru
adalah dua pelaksanaan yang terpidah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><b>2. Rockwell<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>J<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Keuntungan:<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE">a. Dengan kerucut intan dapat diukur
kekerasan baja yang disebuk keras.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE">b. Dengan bekas tekanan yang kecil
kerusakan benda kerja lebih kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>J<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Kerugian:<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Dengan
bekas penekanan yang kecil maka kekerasan rata-rata tidak dapat ditentukan
untuk bahan yang tidak homogen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="DE"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="DE">Vickers<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>J<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Keuntungan:<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE">a. <span> </span>Dengan
adanya penekanan pada benda yang sama kekerasan dapat ditentukan tidak hanya
untuk bahan lunak tetapi juga untuk bahan yang keras.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE">b. <span> </span>Pengukuran
kekerasan lebih teliti.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE">c. <span> </span>Kekerasan
benda yang amat tipis atau lapisan permukaan benda yang<span> </span>tipis dapat diukur dengan memilih gaya yang
kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>J<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Kerugian:<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Penentuan
kekerasasan membutuhkan banyak waktu karena penekanan piramida dan pengukuran
diagonal bekas tekanan dalah 2 pelaksanaan yang terpisah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Penurunan Rumus</span></u></b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US">a) Cara Brinell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Dik:
<span> </span>r<span>
</span>= D/2; z = d/2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="DE"><span style="position: relative; top: 3pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:62.25pt;height:15.75pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1029" width="83" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1029"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675667">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 3pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1030" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:62.25pt;height:15.75pt'
o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1030" width="83" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1030"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675668">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><sup><o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>x<sup>2</sup>
= (D/2)<sup>2</sup> – (d/2)<sup>2</sup> = ¼ (D<sup>2</sup>-d<sup>2</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1031" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:81pt;height:30.75pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1031" width="108" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1031"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675669">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>y
= r – x<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1032" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:228pt;height:21pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image015.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1032" width="304" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1032"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675670">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Luar
½ Bola (A’):<span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 3pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1033"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:63.75pt;height:15.75pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="21" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1033" width="85" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1033"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675671">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Luas
Penekanan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 20pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1034" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:54pt;height:41.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="55" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1034" width="72" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1034"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675672">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1035" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:189.75pt;height:21pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image021.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1035" width="253" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1035"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675673">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1036" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:138pt;height:21pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image023.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="28" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image024.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1036" width="184" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1036"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675675">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Harga Kekerasan Brinell:</span><span lang="DE"><span style="position: relative; top: 15pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1037" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:132.75pt;height:33.75pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image025.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="45" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image026.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1037" width="177" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1037"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675676">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 90pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<u><span lang="EN-US">b) Cara Vickers<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="DE">Perhatikan bidang alas ABCD dari intan
yang berbentuk bujur sangkar didapat:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">AB = BC <span> </span>= AC Cos 45<sup>o<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<sup><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></sup><span lang="EN-US">= </span><span lang="DE"><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1038" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:158.25pt;height:30.75pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image027.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image028.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1038" width="211" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1038"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675677">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -54pt;">
<sup><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></sup><span lang="DE">PQ = ½ AB = <span style="position: relative; top: 9pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1039"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:132pt;height:24pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image029.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="32" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image030.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1039" width="176" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1039"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675678">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>OP
= <span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1040" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:96.75pt;height:38.25pt'
o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image031.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="51" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image032.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1040" width="129" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1040"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675679">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Luas
sebuah bidang penekanan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">BOC = ½ BC.OR ---</span><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>à</span></span><span lang="EN-US"> OR = OP<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
</span><span lang="DE"><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1041"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:249pt;height:33.75pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image033.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="45" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image034.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1041" width="332" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1041"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675680">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Maka
luas bidang penekanan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>A
= 4BOC<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="DE"><span style="position: relative; top: 16pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1042" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:278.25pt;height:38.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image035.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="51" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image036.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1042" width="371" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1042"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675681">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Sehingga diperoleh nilai kekerasan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>HV = P/A<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="DE"><span style="position: relative; top: 23pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1043" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:312.75pt;height:42pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image037.wmz"
o:title=""/>
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<b><u><span lang="DE">JENIS-JENIS PENGERASAN</span></u></b><span lang="DE"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="DE"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="DE">Pengerasan Permukaan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="DE"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Adanya beberapa cara untuk melakukan penerasan
permukaan yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>J<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Karburasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Cara
ini sudah lama dikenal oleh orang sejak dahulu. Dalam cara ini, besi dipanaskan
diatas suhu dalam lingkukngan yang mengandung karbon, baik dalam bentuk padat,
cair, ataupun gas. Beberapa bagian dari karburasi yaitu: karburasi padat,
karburasi cair, dan karburasi gas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>J<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Karbonitriding<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>Adalah suatu proses pengerasan [permukaan
dimana baja dipanaskan diatas suhu kritis didalam lingkungan gas yang terjadi
penyerapan karbon dan nitrogen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>J<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Cyaniding<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>Adalah proses dimana terjadi absorbsi karbon
dalam nitrogen untuk memperoleh permukaan yang keras pada baja karbon rendah
yang sulit dipanaskan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span>J<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Nitriding<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>Adalah proses pengerasan permukaan yang
dipanaskan sampai <u>+</u> 510<sup>O</sup>C didalam lingkungan gas amonia
selama beberapa waktu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Pengerasan Induksi</span></b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>Penggunaan aru listrik untuk pencairan
logam, penerasan dan perlakuan panas lainnya. </span><span lang="DE">Arus bolak-balik berfrekuensi tinggi berasal dari
pembangkit, konventer merkuri, osilator spark atau asilator tabung. Frekueni
pada umumnya tidak melebihi 500.000 Hz untuk benda yang tipis digunakan
frekuensi tingg, sedangkan untuk benda-benda berukuran sedang atau tebal
digunakan frekuensi rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="DE"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="DE">Pengerasan Nyala<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="DE"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="DE">Dasar pengerasan nyala adalah sama dengan pengerasan induksi yaitu
pemanasan yang cepat disusul dengan pencelupan permukaan, tebal lapisan yang
mengeras tergantung pada kemampuan pengerasan bahan. </span><span lang="EN-US">Karena selama proses penerasan tidak ada
penambahan unsur-unsur lainnya. Pemanasan dilakukan dengan nyala oksiasilaen
yang dibiarkan memanasi permukaan logam sampai mencapai suhu kritis. Pada alat
dipanaskan aliran air pendingin sehingga seera setelah suhu yang diinginkan
tercapai , permukan langsung disemprot dengan ai. Bila dikendalikan dengan
baik, bagian dalam tidak berpengaruh. Tebal lapisan yang keras tergantung pada
waktu pemanasan pada suhu nyala.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US">Pengerasan Endapan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Pengerasan endapan hanya dapat
diterapkan pada paduan dimana daya larut suatu komponen berkurang dengan
menurunnya suhu. Paduan dipanaskan beberapa lama sehingga terbentuk paduan yang
homogen kemudian didinginkan dengan cepat sampai suhu ruang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Paduan
masih berupa larutan padat yang lewat jenuh, suatu keadaan tidak stabil, Al2Cu
akanmulai mengendap bila dibiarkan pada suhu ruang. Proses ini disebut proses
pengerasan sepuh alamiah. </span><span lang="DE">Partikel
yang mengendap dari larutan padat terbentuk pada batas butir dan bidang geser,
menghasilkan hambatan sehingga pergeseran atau slip antar partikel/kristal
berkurang. Kekerasan akan berkurang dan bertambah dengan semakin berkurangnya
atau bertambahnya besar partikel diiringi meningkatnya kerapuhan dan
berkurangnya kekuatan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="DE">Uji Kekerasan Mikro<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Pengukuran
gradien kekerasan pada permukaan yang dikarburasi, pengukuran kekerasan
kandungan tunggal pada struktur mikro atau penentuan kekerasan pada roda gigi
merupakan contoh-contoh uji kekerasan mikro.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Pengembangan
penumbuk mikro oleh biro standar rasional dan pengukuran uji tekan untuk
mengontrol permukaan penekanan beban dan menyebabkan penggunaan kekerasan mikro
merupakan kegiatan laboratorium yang rutin. Penumbukan knop adalah intan yang
kasar dan dibentuk dengan perbandingan diagonal panjang dan pendek (T=t). Angka
kekerasan knoop (KHN) adalah beban dibagi luas proyeksi kekerasan yang tidak
akan kembali kebentuk semula.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>KHN
= F/AP = P/L<sup>2</sup>C<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Dimana:
P<span> </span>= Beban yang diterapkan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>AP<span> </span>= Luas proyeksi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>F<span> </span>= Gaya yang diberikan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>L<span> </span>= Panjang diagonal indentor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>C<span> </span>= Konstanta Indentor (0,07028)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="DE">Kekerasan Meyer<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Meyer
engajukan definisi kekerasan yang lebih rasional ibandingkan dengan yang
diajarkan Brinell yang didasarkan pada luas proyeksi retak, buakn keras
permukaannya. </span><span lang="EN-US">Tekanan
rata-rata antara luas penumbuk atau lekukan adalah sama beban luas proyeksi
lekukan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1044" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:63pt;height:30.75pt' o:ole="">
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Meyer
mengemukakan bahwa kekerasan/tekanan rata-rata ini dapat diambil sebagai ukuran
kekerasan dan dinamakan kekerasan Meyer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="_x0000_i1045" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:24.75pt;height:30.75pt'
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Kekerasan
Meyer mempunyai satuan Kg/mm<sup>2</sup>, kekerasan kurang peka terhadap bahan
yang diterapkan dibanding kekerasan Brinell. Untuk bahan-bahan yang mengalami
pekerjaan dingin kekerasan Meyer pada dasarnya tetap, sedangkan kekerasan
Brinell akan mengecil bila beban bertambah. Karena lekukan yang terjadi
mengakibatkan kekerasan renggang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Cara-cara Meningkatkan Kekerasan<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Ada</st1:city></st1:place> beberapa cara yang
digunakan untuk meningkatkan kekerasan suatu logam, antara lain:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>a.
Perlakuan Panas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Kekerasan dapat diperoleh
dengan melakukan perlakuan panas yang disertai perdinginan yang cepat.
Pemanasan diatas suhu kritis kemudian disusul pendinginan yang cepat akan membentuk
fasa Martensit yang bersifat sangat keras dan getas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>b.
Penambahan Unsur Paduan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Unsur paduan karbon paling
banyak digunakan untuk meningkatkan kekerasan baja. Unsur karbon memiliki sifat
sebagai pengikat molekul logam, sehingga penambahan karbon dapat meningkatkan
ikatan antar molekul sehingga mengakibatkan baja tersebut kuat, tetapi
menurunkan keuletan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Pengaruh Unsur Paduan Terhadap Kekerasan<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="DE">Ada tiga fungsi pokok unsur-unsur paduan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">a) Sebagai subsitusi atom besi dalam larutan padat atau dalam sementit
untuk meningkatkan kekuatan, kekerasan, dan ketangguhan. Selain itu elemen
paduan dapat dimanfaatkan guna membatasi pertumbuhan butir dan kristal selama
proses transformasi atau perlakuan panas. Unsur lain ditambahkan untuk mengikat
kotoran dan ketidakmurnian dalam besi seperti belerang atau nitrogen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE">b) Untuk menjamin terbentuknya Martensit pada laju pendinginan yang lebih
rendah daripada laju pendinginan celup air panas dari tengah logam dapat
merambat kepermukaan dengan kecepatan tertentu dan bila bentuk benda tak
teratur. Laju pendinginan dipusat logam terlalu lambat untuk menjamin
terbentuknya Martensit. Sejumlah kecil unsur paduan (kurangdari 5%) seperti
krominium, nikel, Moliblin, dan Varadium. Khususnya bila dalam kombinasi
tertentu dapat mendorong pembentukan struktur martensit dipusat benda unsur
paduan yang memiliki fungsi ini disebut unsur yang dapat meningkatkan
kemampukerasan baja.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE">c) <span> </span>Untuk membentuk karbida yang
lebih keras dan tahan aus dari pada sementit (Fe3C) dan disamping itu, untuk
mengatur penemperan martensit. Turunnya kekerasan baja karbon tanpa paduan
terjadi antara suhu 300<sup>o</sup>C dan 400<sup> o</sup>C, tetapi pada baja
yang mengandung Tungston, Khrom, kobalt, dan Varadium, penurunan kekerasannya
akan terjadi di sekitar suhu 650<sup> o</sup>C. Ini berarti bahwa baja paduan
jenis ini dapat dipergunakan untuk perkakas pemesinan berkecepatan tinggi. Pada
prose ini perkakas dapat mengalami pemanasan setempat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<b><u><span lang="DE">Kurva Kekerasan Vs Kadar Karbon<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<b><span lang="DE"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="DE"><span> </span>Gambar
tersebut memperlihatkan nilai maksimum dari kekerasan dengan meningkatnya kadar
karbon dalam baja. Nilai karbon mempengaruhi kekerasan, niali kekerasan
maksimum ini hanya diperoleh apabila terbentuk 100% Martensit. Baja yang
bertransformasi dengan cepat dari austenit menjadi ferit plus karbida mempunyai
kemampukerasan rendah karena terbentuk (α + E) dan bukan martensit. Sebaliknya,
baja yang bertransformasi sangat lambat dari austenit menjadi ferit plus
karbida memiliki kemampukerasan yang tinggi dan kekerasan yang lebih tinggi
dapat dicapai dipusat sepotong baja meskipun pada bagian ini laju
pendinginannya lebih lambat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="DE">Kurva Kekerasan Vs Temperatur</span></u></b><span lang="DE"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Hubungan antara kekerasan
dengan temperatur adalah makin tinggi suhu pemanasan maka bahan akan semakin
lunak karena suhu yang tinggi tersebut menyebabkan jarak molekul akan semakin
merenggang, sehingga daya ikat berkurang, dengan semakin rendahnya daya ikat
antar molekul, maka bahan tersebut akan semakin ulet dan lunak. Begitupun
sebaliknya, temperatur yang rendah mnyebabkan terbentuknya fasa martensit yang
mempengaruhi sifat bahan dimana semakin keras dan getas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="DE">Jenis-jenis Karburasi<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="DE">1. Karburasi Padat (Fack Carburizine)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Adalah suatu cara
karburasi yang sudah dikenal cukup lama. Bahan diasumsikan dalam kotak tertutup
dan ruangan disi dengan arang katu atau kokas. Prosesnya memakan waktu cukup
lama dan banayk diterapkan untuk memperoleh lapisan yang tebal diantara 0,75
hingga 4 mm.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">2. Karburasi Gs (Gas Carburizine)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Antara lain dapat
digunakan gas alam atau hidrokarbon atau propan (gas karbit). Cara ini
diterapkan untuk karburasi bagian-bagian yang kecil yang dapat dicelupkan
langsung setelah pemanasan dalam kapur. </span><span lang="EN-US">Untuk memperoleh lapisan yang lebih tipis
antara 0,10 sampai 0,75 mm, digunakan cara ini.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US">3. Karburasi Cair (Liquid Carburazine)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Baj dipanaskan diatas
suhu AC dalam dapur garam Cyanidasehingga karbon dan sedikit nitrogen dapat
berdifusi ke dalam lapisan luar. Proses ini ,mirip dengan proses Cyanida, hanya
disini kulit luar mempunyai kadar karbon yang lebih tinggi dari kadar nitrogen
yang lebih rendah. Karburasi cair dapat digunakan untuk membentuk lapisan
setebal 6,35 mm, meskipun umumnya lapisan tidak melebihi 0,64 mm. </span><span lang="DE">Cara ini baik untuk pengerasan permukaan
benda yang berukuran kecil dan sedang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="DE">Faktor-faktor yang Mempengaruhi Kekerasan<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="DE">1. Kadar Karbon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Baja merupakan
hasil paduan antara Fe (Besi) dengan karbon yang relatif lebih lunak. Semakin
tinggi kadar karbon yang dikandung maka baja tersebut akan semakin keras dan
getas. Namun dibalik tingginya kadar karbon yang dimiliki akan menyebabkan
keuletan suatu logam akan menurun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">2. Media Pendingin<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Media pendingin
sangat berpengaruh terhadap struktur mikro suatu logam. Pada saat logam telah
mengalami pemanasan, media pendingin dengan kecepatan pendingin yang cepat akan
menghasilkan kerja yang keras. Namun baja yang keras akan menyebabkan turunnya
keuletan baja tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="DE"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Temperatur Pemanasan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>Temperatur
pemanasan dalam tungku akan mempengaruhi struktur yang terbentuk, dimana tinggi
suhu pemanasan akan menyebabkan terbentuknya strukturil yang lunak karena jaraj
antara molekul semakin renggang sehingga menjadi lunak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">4. Debit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Semakin besar volume <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">massa</st1:city></st1:place> media pendingin, amak semakin cepat
proses pendinginannya, begitu pula sebaliknya. Hal ini disebabkan karena panas
yang dapat diserap oleh media pendingin atau fluida akan lebih banayk
dibandingkan volume yang kecil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="EN-US">Macam-macam Unsur Paduan dan
Pengaruhnya Pada Kekerasan<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>Pada pengerasan logam,
salah satu cara yang biasa dilakukan adalah dengan menambahkan unsur-unsur
paduan seperti:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>a. <span> </span>Chrom (Cr) dapat menambah kekuatan tarik dan meningkatkan ketahanan
terhadap korosi dan suhu tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>b. <span> </span></span><span lang="DE">Mangan (Mn) menambah kekuatan dan elastisitas, kekerasan dan keuletan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>c. <span> </span>Silikon (Si) menambah kekuatan, ketahanan, terhadap asam pada suhu
tinggi dan ketahanan listrik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>d. <span> </span>Nikel (Ni) meningkatkan sifat mekanis keuletan, kemampukerasan dan
mengurangi sifat magnit, tahanan asam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>e. <span> </span>Molibden dan Wolfram, menambah kekuatan dan kekerasan terutama pada
suhu tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span lang="DE">Perbedaan antara
Pengerasan Induksi dan Pengerasan Nyala<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span lang="DE">a. Pengerasan Nyala:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>-<span> </span>Pada pengerasan ini, digunakan arus listrik untuk pencairan
logam, pengerasan, dan perlakuan panas lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>- <span> </span>Proses pengerasannya lebih cepat, bahkan untuk memanaskan baja
sampai kedalaman 3,2 mm hanya diperlukan beberapa detik saja.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE">b. Pengerasan Nyala<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>-<span> </span>Pada pengerasanini, digunakan nyala oksiasitilen yang dibiarkan
memanasi permukaan logam sampai emncapai titik kritis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>-<span> </span>Proses pengerasannya agak lebih lama daripada pengerasan induksi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="DE">BAB III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="DE">PENGUJIAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="DE">3.1 Bahan dan Alat yang Digunakan:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="DE">A. Bahan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="DE"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="DE">Bahan yang digunakan adalah baja dengan
ukuran:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">panjang
= 12,5 mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">diameter
= 9mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Spesimen sebelumnya telah melalui proses perlakuan panas dan kemudian
melalui pendinginan air garam, air, udara, oli, dan tungku.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US">B. Alat yang Digunakan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">Alat yang digunakan yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Kikir,
gunanya untuk meratakan permukaan benda uji.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Amplas,
gunanya menghaluskan permukaan benda uji.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US">Alat
penguji kekerasan Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="DE">Catok,
gunanya menjepit benda kerja pada saat dikikir.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="DE">3.2 Prosedur pengujian<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="DE"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="DE">1. <span> </span>Menyiapkan spesimen yang telah diberi
perlakuan panas dengan dimensi yang telah digunakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>2. <span> </span>Bahan
uji diratakan permukaannya dengan alat kikir dan amplas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>3. <span> </span>Bahan
uji diletakkan di atas landasan pada alat penekan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>4. <span> </span>Landasan
dinaikkan sehingga permukaan spesimen bersentuhan dengan uung dari kerucut dan
kemudian mengatur jarum skala penunjukan sampai pada posisi nol lalu diberi
beban.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>5. <span> </span>Pengukuran
bekas penekanan dapat dibaca langsung pada skala dan dicatat pada tabel yang
tersedia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="DE"><span> </span>6. <span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">Mengulangi langkah diatas untuk
setiap bahan uji dengan media pendingin yang lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">3.3 Data dan Pengolahan Data:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">A. Data</span></b><span lang="EN-US">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>P = 150 g<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>D = 10 mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>F = 150 x 9,81 = 1471,
5 N<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US">B. Pengolahan Data:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US">1. <span> </span>Pengolahan
data untuk spesimen yang dipanaskan sampai 800<sup>o</sup>C dengan media
pendingin air garam.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>a. Kekerasan Brinell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>h
= (130 – H<sub>RB</sub>) x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
(130 – 84) x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
0,092 mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>c
<span> </span>= 0,6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>t<span> </span>= c + h<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
0,6 + 0,092<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
0,692<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>H<sub>B</sub>
<span> </span>= <span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1046"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:39.75pt;height:30.75pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image043.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image044.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1046" width="53" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1046"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675685">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]-->= <span style="position: relative; top: 14pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1047" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:63.75pt;height:33pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image045.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="44" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image046.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1047" width="85" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1047"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675686">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]-->= 67, 72 N/mm<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>b.
Kekerasan Vickers<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>H<sub>V</sub><span> </span>= 230 + ( 98 – 96,7 ) (240-230/98.1 – 96,7)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
230 + (1,3)(7,14)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
239,28 Kg/mm<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>c.
Kekerasan Rockwell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>H<sub>R</sub>
<span> </span>= P<sub>2</sub> = 98<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>H <span> </span>= (100
– H<sub>RC</sub>) x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
(100 – 98 ) x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
0,004<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">2. <span> </span>Pengolahan data untuk spesimen
yang dipanaskan sampai 800<sup>o</sup>C dengan media pendingin air.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="DE">a. Kekerasan Brinell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>h = (130 – H<sub>RB</sub>)
x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= (130 – 81) x
0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= 0,098 mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>c <span> </span>= 0,6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>t<span> </span>= c + h<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= 0,6 + 0,098<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= 0,698<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>H<sub>B</sub>
<span> </span>= </span><span lang="EN-US"><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1048" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:39.75pt;height:30.75pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image043.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image044.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1048" width="53" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1048"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675687">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="DE">= </span><span lang="EN-US"><span style="position: relative; top: 5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1049"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:9pt;height:17.25pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="23" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1049" width="12" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1049"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675688">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--><span style="position: relative; top: 14pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1050" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:63.75pt;height:33pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image047.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="44" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image048.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1050" width="85" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1050"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675689">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="DE">= 67, 14
N/mm<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">b. Kekerasan Vickers<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>H<sub>V</sub><span> </span>= 180 + ( 89 – 87.1 ) (190-180/89.5 – 87.4)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
180 + (1,9)(4,16)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>= 187,904 Kg/mm<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>c.
Kekerasan Rockwell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>H<sub>R</sub>
<span> </span>= P<sub>2</sub> = 89<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>H <span> </span>= (100
– H<sub>RC</sub>) x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
(100 – 89 ) x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
0,022<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">3. <span> </span>Pengolahan data untuk spesimen
yang dipanaskan sampai 800<sup>o</sup>C dengan media pendingin udara.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="DE">a. Kekerasan Brinell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>h = (130 – H<sub>RB</sub>)
x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= (130 – 79) x
0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= 0,102 mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>c <span> </span>= 0,6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>t<span> </span>= c + h<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= 0,6 + 0,102<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= 0,702<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>H<sub>B</sub>
<span> </span>= </span><span lang="EN-US"><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1051" type="#_x0000_t75"
style='width:39.75pt;height:30.75pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image043.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="41" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image044.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1051" width="53" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1051"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675690">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="DE">= </span><span lang="EN-US"><span style="position: relative; top: 14pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1052"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:63.75pt;height:33pt' o:ole="">
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image049.wmz"
o:title=""/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img height="44" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image050.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1052" width="85" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1052"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675691">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></span><span lang="DE">= 66, 76
N/mm<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">b. Kekerasan Vickers<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>H<sub>V</sub><span> </span>= 200 Kg/mm<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>c.
Kekerasan Rockwell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>H<sub>R</sub>
<span> </span>= P<sub>2</sub> = 95<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>h <span> </span>=
(100 – H<sub>RC</sub>) x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
(100 – 95 ) x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
0,01<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">4. <span> </span>Pengolahan data untuk spesimen
yang dipanaskan sampai 800<sup>o</sup>C dengan media pendingin oli.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="DE">a. Kekerasan Brinell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>h = (130 – H<sub>RB</sub>)
x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= (130 – 77) x
0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= 0,106 mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>c <span> </span>= 0,6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>t<span> </span>= c + h<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= 0,6 + 0,106<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= 0.706<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>H<sub>B</sub>
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N/mm<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">b. Kekerasan Vickers<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>H<sub>V</sub><span> </span>= 150 + ( 79 – 78,7 ) (160-150/81,7 – 78,7)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
150 + (0,3)(9.63)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
152.88 Kg/mm<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>c.
Kekerasan Rockwell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>H<sub>R</sub>
<span> </span>= P<sub>2</sub> = 79<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><span> </span>H <span> </span>= (100
– H<sub>RC</sub>) x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
(100 – 79 ) x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
0,042<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US">5. <span> </span>Pengolahan data untuk spesimen
yang dipanaskan sampai 800<sup>o</sup>C dengan media pendingin tungku.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="DE">a. Kekerasan Brinell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>h = (130 – H<sub>RB</sub>)
x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">= (130 – 65) x 0,002<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
0,13 mm<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>c
<span> </span>= 0,6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="DE">t<span> </span>=
c + h<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= 0,6 + 0,13<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>= 0,73<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>H<sub>B</sub>
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N/mm<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span>b.
Kekerasan Vickers<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="DE"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US">H<sub>V</sub><span> </span>= 120 + ( 71 – 66,7 ) (130-120/71.2 – 66,7)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>=
129.546 Kg/mm<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>c.
Kekerasan Rockwell<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span>H<sub>R</sub>
<span> </span>= P<sub>2</sub> = 71<o:p></o:p></span></div>piamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5458366533732204239.post-37130014273278144752012-02-13T06:00:00.000-08:002012-02-13T06:00:45.947-08:00motor disel<link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_oledata.mso" rel="OLE-Object-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]>
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<h4 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">LATAR BELAKANG<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada umumnya suatu motor dapat diartikan sebagai suatu pesawat yang dapat
mengubah energi tertentu menjadi energi gerak. Sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan
motor bakar adalah mesin kalor dimana gas panas diperoleh dari proses
pembakaran di dalam mesin itu sendiri dan langsung dipakai melakukan kerja
mekanis untuk menjalankan mesin tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Dalam sejarah perkembangannya, kurang lebih seratus tahun sejak dibuat
untuk pertama kalinya motor bakar torak adalah penggerak mula yang ringan dan
kompak. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Dewasa ini motor bakar torak mempunyai peran yang sangat penting dalam
kehidupan manusia, hampir semua orang menikmati manfaatnya misalnya dalam
bidang transportasi, penerangan, pertanian, industri dan sebagainya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada dasarnya masalah yang akan dibahas dalam pengujian motor bakar adalah
pembakaran dalam yang terdiri dari pengujian motor diesel empat langkah dengan
beberapa pengamatan tentang karakteristik dan performance suatu mesin pada
kondisi putaran konstan, throttle konstan dan beban konstan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>II.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">TUJUAN PENGUJIAN</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Menganalisa</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">
variasi</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">
pembukaan throttle</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">
dan putaran poros konstan dengan pembebanan bervariasi</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"> terhadap prsetasi mesin
diesel dengan parameter-parameter sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Perbandingan
antara bahan bakar dan udara dalam silinder</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"> (</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">A</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">F</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">R</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Besarnya
tekanan yang diberikan secara efektif (Mep)</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 2cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -21.25pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Laju
aliran sesuai dengan kapasitas siliinder (Mth)</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h4 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>III.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">TEORI DASAR<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Motor Diesel adalah motor bakar torak yang berbeda dengan motor bensin,
proses penyalaannya bukan dengan loncatan bunga api melainkan dengan </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">injeksi</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"> bahan bakar. Pada
langkah isap hanya udara saja yang masuk kedalam selinder. Pada waktu<span> </span>torak hampir mencapai Titik Mati Atas (TMA)
bahan bakar diinjeksikan kedalam selinder, terjadilah proses penyalaan
(pembakaran) pada saat udara didalam selinder bertekanan tinggi karena pengaruh
langkah kompresi, sehingga temperatur udara dalam selinder mencapai titik nyala
dari bahan bakar yang diinjeksikan. Motor diesel disebut juga<span> </span>Compression Ignation Engine.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 29.45pt;">
<br /></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Keterangan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Fluida kerja dianggap sebagai gas ideal dengan kalor
spesifik yang konstan;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Langkah isap (0-1) merupakan tekanan-konstan, torak
bergerak dari TMA ke TMB;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Langkah kompresi (1-2) ialah proses isentropik torak
bergerak dari TMB ke TMA;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>d.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Proses pembakaran tekanan konstan (2-3) dianggap sebagai
proses pemasukan kalor pada tekanan-konstan, torak mulai bergerak dari TMA ke
TMB;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>e.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Langkah kerja (3-4) ialah proses isentropik, torak
bergerak dari TMA ke TMB;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>f.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Proses
pembuangan (4-1) dianggap proses pengeluaran kalor pada volume konstan;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>g.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Langkah buang (1-0) ialah proses tekanan konstan, torak
bergerak dari TMB ke TMA;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 70.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>h.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Siklus dianggap tertutup, artinya siklus ini berlangsung
dengan fluida kerja yang sama atau, gas yang berada didalam selinder pada waktu
langkah buang, tetapi pada waktu langkah isap berikutnya akan masuk sejumlah
fluida kerja yang sama.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Proses pemasukan kalor pada tekanan konstan sangat sukar dilaksanakan oleh
karena itu dalam perhitungan perancangan siklus motor Diesel yang modern
biasanya digunakan siklus udara tekanan terbatas sebagai pendekatan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Siklus udara tekanan terbatas (siklus gabungan)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Apabila pemasukan kalor pada suatu siklus dilaksanakan baik pada
volume-konstan maupun pada tekanan-konstan, siklus tersebut dinamai siklus
tekanan-terbatas atau siklus gabungan. Gambar 2. melukiskan diagram P vs v
siklus ini. Pada gambar itu terlihat proses pemasukan kalor berlangsung selama
proses (2-3a) sampai (3a-3).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<v:shape alt="IMG_0002" id="Picture_x0020_50" o:spid="_x0000_s1125" style="height: 215.25pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 44.1pt; margin-top: -0.1pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 351pt; z-index: -40;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Gambar 2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Dalam siklus diatas langkah isap (0-1) dimisalkan memiliki tekanan sama
dengan langkah buang (1-0). Kedua langkah tersebut diatas sebenarnya memiliki
tekanan yang berbeda. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Siklus Aktual<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Dalam kenyataannya tiada satu siklus pun yang merupakan siklus tekanan
konstan, atau siklus tekanan terbatas. Tetapi boleh dikatakan antara efisiensi
siklus udara dan siklus sebenarnya terdapat hubungan tertentu, yaitu pada
efisiensi indikatornya:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 21.25pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>h</span></span><sub><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">i Diesel <span> </span></span></sub><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>»</span></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> <span> </span>0,75 – 0,85 </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>h</span></span><sub><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">tekanan-konstan<o:p></o:p></span></sub></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>»</span></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>0,65 – 0,80 </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>h</span></span><sub><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">volume-konstan<o:p></o:p></span></sub></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">dimana,</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>h</span></span><sub><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">i Diesel <span> </span></span></sub><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>»</span></span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> 0,40 – 0,55<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<v:shape alt="sc 7" id="_x0000_s1124" style="height: 408.75pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 37.35pt; margin-top: 12.45pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 372.6pt; z-index: 57;" type="#_x0000_t75" wrapcoords="17197 40 162 -425 -409 21367 2977 21478 5325 21552 21412 21827 21707 14141 21664 12952 21765 10336 21725 9145 21870 5263 21829 4072 21928 1456 21887 267 21893 188 17197 40">
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<w:wrap type="through">
</w:wrap><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></v:imagedata></v:shape></div>
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<br /></div>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Gambar. 3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penyimpangan dari siklus udara (ideal) itu terjadi karena
dalam keadaan yang sebenarnya terjadi kerugian yang antara lain disebabkan oleh
hal </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">berikut</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kebocoran fluida kerja karena penyekaan oleh cincin torak
dan katup tak dapat sempurna;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Katup tidak dibuka tepat di TMA dan TMB karena
pertimbangan dinamika mekanisme katup dan kelembaban fluida kerja. Kerugian
tersebut dapat diperkecil bila saat pembukaan dan penutupan katup disesuaikan
dengan besarnya beban dan kecepatan torak;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Fluida kerja bukanlah udara yang dapat dianggap sebagai
gas ideal dengan kalor spesifik yang konstan selama proses siklus berlangsung;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada motor bakar torak yang sebenarnya, pada waktu torak
berada<span> </span>di TMA, tidak terdapat pemasukan
kalor seperti siklus udara. Kenaikan tekanan dan temperatur fluida kerja
disebabkan oleh proses pembakaran antara bahan bakar dan udara di dalam
selinder;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Proses pembakaran memerlukan waktu jadi, tidak
berlangsung sekaligus. Akibatnya proses pembakaran berlangsung pada volume dan
ruang bakar yang berubah-ubah karena gerakan torak. Dengan demikian, proses
pembakaran harus sudah dimulai beberapa derajat sudut engkol sebelum torak
mencapai TMA dan berakhir beberapa derajat sudut engkol sesudah torak bergerak
kembali dari TMA menuju TMB. Jadi, proses pembakaran tidak dapat berlangsung
pada volume atau pada tekanan yang konstan. Di samping itu pada kenyataannya
tidak pernah terjadi pembakaran tidak sempurna. Karena itu daya dan
efisiensinya sangatlah bergantung pada perbandingan campuran bahan bakar-udara,
kesempurnaan bahan bakar-udara itu bercampur, dan saat penyalaan;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Terdapat kerugian kalor yang disebabkan oleh perpindahan
kalor dari fluida kerja ke fluida pendingin, terutama pada langkah kompresi,
ekspansi dan pada waktu gas buang meninggalkan selinder. Perpindahan kalor
tersebut terjadi karena terdapat perbedaan temperatur antara fluida kerja dan
fluida pendingin. Fluida pendingin diperlukan untuk mendinginkan bagian mesin
yang menjadi panas, untuk mencegah bagian tersebut dari kerusakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Terdapat kerugian energi kalor yang dibawa oleh gas buang
dari dalam selinder ke atmosfir sekitarnya. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Energi tersebut tak dapat dimanfaatkan
untuk<span> </span>melakukann kerja mekanik;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Terdapat kerugian energi karena gesekan antara fluida
kerja dengan dinding sekitarnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 35.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Berdasarkan semua hal diatas, bentuk diagram P vs v dari
siklus yang sebenarnya tidak sama dengan bentuk diagram siklus ideal. Siklus
sebenarnya tidak pernah merupakan siklus volume konstan, siklus tekanan konstan
atau siklus tekanan terbatas (gambar 2).</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> </span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Menunjukkan bentuk diagram P vs v dari
sebuah motor bakar torak 2-langkah dan 4-langkah yang sebenarnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Karena semua penyimpangan tadi menimbulkan kerugian
energi, hendaknya diusahakan agar siklus yang sebenarnya itu mendekati siklus
udara yang ideal. Siklus yang ideal pada saat ini biasa dipakai dalam
perhitungan perancangan atau penaksiran.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Periode Pembakaran Mesin Diesel</span></b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<v:shape alt="IMG_0003" id="Picture_x0020_51" o:spid="_x0000_s1123" style="height: 212.25pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 22.35pt; margin-top: 17.7pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 372.75pt; z-index: -39;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata blacklevel="-6554f" gain="109227f" o:title="IMG_0003" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image004.jpg">
</v:imagedata><b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></v:shape></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Gambar. 4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Proses pembakaran pada motor Diesel tidak terjadi sekaligus, tetapi
memerlukan waktu dan terjadi dalam beberapa tahap. Disamping itu penyemprotan
bahan bakar juga tidak dapat dilaksanakan sekaligus tetapi berlangsung antara
15<sup>o</sup> – 20<sup>o</sup> sudut engkol sebelum Titik Mati Atas (TMA).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 35.45pt;">
<v:shape alt="IMG_0004" id="Picture_x0020_52" o:spid="_x0000_s1122" style="height: 290.25pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 17.1pt; margin-top: 19.25pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 447.75pt; z-index: -38;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata gain="1.25" o:title="IMG_0004" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image005.jpg">
</v:imagedata><b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Siklus 4-</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">langkah</span></b><b><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> dan 2-langkah</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></v:shape></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.7pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Gambar 5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada motor bakar torak yang lazim, yaitu motor bakar
torak yang mempergunakan batang penggerak dan poros engkol, gerak torak
TMA-TMB-TMA itu memutar engkol satu kali (360<sup>o</sup> sudut engkol). Karena
itu motor 4-langkah adalah motor bakar torak yang melengkapi siklusnya (dengan
satu kali pembakaran) selama dua putaran poros engkol, sedangkan motor
2-langkah adalah motor bakar torak yang melengkapi siklusnya dalam satu putaran
poros engkol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h1 style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Courier New";">SISTEM KEMUDI<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sistem
kemudi berfungsi mengatur arah kendaraan dengan cara,membelokkan roda depan.
Bila roda kemudi diputar, kolom kemudi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">meneruskan putaran ke roda gigi kemudi. Roda gigi kemudi ini
memperbesar momen putar, sehingga menghasilkan tenaga yang lebih besar untuk menggerakkan
roda depan melalui sambungan-sambungan kemudi (steering linkage).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ada dua model sistem kemudi yang umum
digunakan pada mobil,yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">model recirculating ball <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.14.jpg"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.14.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_178" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1051" style="height: 220.5pt; visibility: visible; width: 397.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_016" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image006.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">model rack dan punion<br />
</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_179" o:spid="_x0000_i1050" style="height: 150pt; visibility: visible; width: 377.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_008" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image007.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kolom kemudi (steering column) <br />
Kolom kemudi terdiri atas main shaft yang meneruskan putaran roda kemudi ke
roda gigi kemudi, dan kolom kemudi yang mengikat<br />
main shaft ke bodi. Ujung atas dari main shaft dibuat meruncing dan bergigi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Di ujung inilah roda kemudi diikat
dengan sebuah mur. Bagian-bagian dari kolom kemudi ditunjukkam pada <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_180" o:spid="_x0000_i1049" style="height: 165pt; visibility: visible; width: 404.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_015" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image008.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Roda gigi kemudi (steering gear) <span> </span>Roda gigi kemudi selain berfungsi mengarahkan
roda depan, juga berfungsi sebagai gigi reduksi untuk memperbesar momen
agar kemudi menjadi ringan dan gangguan-gangguan terhadap roda tidak langsung
dirasakan oleh pengemudi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ada beberapa jenis roda gigi kemudi, tetapi
yang banyak digunakan dewasa ini adalah jenis recirculating ball <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_181" o:spid="_x0000_i1048" style="height: 140.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 187.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_007" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image009.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">dan <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%;"><a href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.18.jpg"><span lang="IN" style="text-decoration: none;"><v:shape href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.18.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_182" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1047" style="height: 117.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 349.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_009" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image010.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Janis recirculating ball digunakan
pada mobil penumpang ukuran sedang sampai besar dan mobil komercial<span> </span>sedangkan jenis rack dan pinion digunakan
pada mobil penumpang ukuran kecil sampai sedang. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">sambunbungan-sambungan
kemudi (steering linkage)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Walaupun mobil bergerak
naik-turun, gerakan roda kemudi harus dapat diteruskan ke roda·roda dengan
sangat tepat (akurat) setiap saat, untuk ilu diperlukan sambungan-sambungan
kemudi (steering linkage. Babarapa model sambungan·sambungan kemudi suspensi
rigid <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_183" o:spid="_x0000_i1046" style="height: 2in; visibility: visible; width: 407.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_002" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image011.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">suspensi independen</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><br />
<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_184" o:spid="_x0000_i1045" style="height: 165pt; visibility: visible; width: 407.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_004" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image012.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN-US"> </span><span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_185" o:spid="_x0000_i1044" style="height: 160.5pt; visibility: visible; width: 402.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_013" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image013.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Power steering<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sistem power steering direncanakan
untuk mengurangi tenaga pengemudian saat mobil bergerak pada putaran rendah dem
menyesuainya pada tingkat tertentu bila kendaraan bererak mulai kecepatan sedang
sampai kecepatan tinggi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada sistem power steering
terdapat bosster hidraulis yang ditempatkan di bagian tengah mekanisme
kemudi.Power steering model integral<br />
</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_186" o:spid="_x0000_i1043" style="height: 176.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 405.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_003" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image014.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">memperlihatkan mekanisme power
steering model<br />
integral. Bagian utamanya terdiri atas tangki reservoir (berisi fluida),vane
pump yang membangkitkan tenaga hidraulis, gear box yang berisi control valve,
power pinton, dan steerig gear (jenis recirculating balt). pipa-pipa yang
mcngalirkan fluida dan selang-selang fleksibel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Power sfeering model rack dan
pinion Power steering model ini mekanismenya sama dengan model integral, tetapi
control valvenya termasuk di dalam gear housing dan power pistonnya terpisah di
dalam power cylinder.<br />
</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_187" o:spid="_x0000_i1042" style="height: 227.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 405pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_011" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image015.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">roda<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Output terakhir dari tenaga putar
mesin adalah pada roda. Sambil memikul berat kendaraan roda juga berfungsi
meredam kejutan kejutan dan menambah kenyamanan pengendara. Roda dapat dibagii menjadi
dua bagian, yaitu pelek roda (disc wheel dan ban (tire).</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pelek roda</span><span lang="EN-US"><br />
</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_188" o:spid="_x0000_i1041" style="height: 164.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 292.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_005" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image016.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Memperlihatkan sebuah model velg
roda yang banyak<br />
digunakan pada mobil penumpang. Velg roda dipasangkan pada poros roda (axle
shaft) dengan menggunakan empat atau enam baut. Baut-baut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ban adalah bagian mobil yang
barsentuhan langsung dengan permukaan jalan. Selain berfungsi meredam kejutan,
ban juga bertugas menjejak dengan gaya geseknya pada jalan selama kendaraan
berjalan, membelok, dan saat pengereman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Menurut konstruksinya ban dapat
dibedakan menjadi ban bias<br />
dan ban radial <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.25.jpg"><span lang="IN" style="text-decoration: none;"><v:shape href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.25.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_189" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1040" style="height: 123pt; visibility: visible; width: 412.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_014" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image017.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ban bias mengasilkan jalannya kendaraan lebih
lembut, tetapi kemampuan membelok dan ketahanan ausnya kurang. Ban radial
menghasilkan kemampuan membelok dan kemampuan kecepatan tinggi yang baik serta
tahanan gelindingnya rendah.Daya tahan ausnya lebih tinggi dibanding ban biasa.
Tetapi pada jalan yang tidak rata dengan kecepatan rendah, ban radial lembut dirasakan
pengendara. Menurut penampungan isi udaranya, dapat dibedakan menjadi ban biasa
dan ban tubles<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_190" o:spid="_x0000_i1039" style="height: 128.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 378.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_006" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image018.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada ban biasa, udara ditampung pada
ban dalam. Katup atau pentilnya bersatu dengan ban dalam.Bila ban biasa
tertusuk benda tajam maka akan langsung kempes. Pada ban tubles tidak terdapat
ban dalam, tekanan udara hanya ditahan oleh lapisan ban dalam yang kedap udara.
Katup atau pentilnya langsung terpasang pada pelek. Bila ban tubles tertusuk
benda tajam, tidak langsung menjadi kempes (tekanan udaranya tidak turun
seketika) karena lapisan dalamnya menghasilkan efek merapatkan sendiri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">C a s t e r<br />
Caster adalah sudut antara king pin dengan garis vertikal yang dilihat dari
samping kendaraan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.30.jpg"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.30.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_191" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1038" style="height: 159.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 165.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="3_010" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image019.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bila miringnya ke arah belakang
disebut caster positif sebaliknya bila miringnya ke arah depan disebut caster
negatif. Pada umumnya yang dipakai adalah caster positif karena dapat
menghasilkan kestabilan kendaraan saat berjalan lurus dan daya balik kemudi
setelah membelok lebih baik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">King pin inclination<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Garis sumbu yang melalui ball
joint atas dan ball joint bawah disebut steering axis (sumbu kemudi). Sumbu ini
dimiringkan ke arah dalam sekitar 5-7°. Kemiringan ini dinamakam king pin
inclination. Dengan adanya king pin inclination bersama-sama dengan camber,
maka jarak (offset) akan menjadi sangat kecil, sehingga kemudi akan lebih
ringan dan kejutan akibat pengereman dan percepatan dapat berkurang. Di samping
itu, dengan adanya king pin inclination dapat dihasilkan daya balik kemudi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">dengan ,memanfaatkan berat
kendaraan.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_192" o:spid="_x0000_i1037" style="height: 220.5pt; visibility: visible; width: 231pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="3" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image020.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Toe-in<br />
Bila dilihat dari atas, roda-roda depan terlihat menyudut kearah dalam di
bagian depan </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Yang dimaksud toe-in adalah selisih antara
jarak A dan B (toe-in = B - A). Biasanya selisih ini diatur 2 - 6 mm. Bila
jarak bagian depan (A) lebih besar daripada jarak bagian belakang (B) disebut
toe-out<br />
Bila roda-roda depan memiliki camber positif maka bagian atas roda mlring
mengarah ke luar, sehingga roda-roda berusaha menggelinding ke arah luar pada
saat mobil berjalan lurus dan akan terjadi side slip yang berakibat ban cepat
aus. Untuk mencegah hal ini maka diatasi oleh adanya toe-in.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br />
</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_194" o:spid="_x0000_i1036" style="height: 228.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 402pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata></v:shape></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">penyetelan toe-in, cember; dan caster Pada
model suspensi independen, besarnya toe-in distel oleh tie-rod kiri dan kanan,
sedangkan besar sudut camber dan caster distel dengan menambah atau mengurangi
shim yang disisipkan pada upper arm rangka. Pada model suspensi tetap (satu
poros), toe-in distel dengan mengubah-ubah tie-rod yang panjang, sedangkan
besar caster distel dengan menyisipkan busi tirus (bentuk baji) antara pegas
daun dan rumah poros.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<h4 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>IV.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">METODE DAN PROSEDUR PENGUJIAN<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">A.Metode Pengujian <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sebelum menjalankan mesin,</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">sambungkan aki sebagai
sumbe aus kemudai pasang termokopel untuk mengukur gas buang dan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> bahan bakar sudah harus ada
didalam tangki, untuk menjamin cukupnya bahan bakar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pompa air dijalankan untuk
mensirkulasikan air pendingin mesin sampai putaran motor stabil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Mesin motor diesel dioperasikan
dengan memutar kunci keposisi on dan dibiarkan selama 2 – 3 menit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>d.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Mesin dibiarkan beroperasi 2 – 3
menit agar minyak pelumas dapat bersikulasi dengan baik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>e.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Katup udara<span> </span>(throttel) dibuka pada bukaan </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">20</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">% sampai putaran konstan yang
diinginkan yaitu 1</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">4</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">00 rpm. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>f.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Setelah kec. Putaran stabil, keran
bahar bakar ditutup, ketika bahan bakar sampai pada garis pertama tabung gelas
ukur, stopwatch diaktifkan hingga<span> </span>bahan
bakar turun pada garis akhir tentang gelas ukur 50 cc, lalu stopwatch
diaktifkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>g.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Mencatat nilai waktu pemakaian
bahan bakar, Twb, Tdb, Tip, Top, manometer, beban, debit air pendingin dan
temperatur gas buang dalam tabel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>h.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Keran bahan bakar dibuka setelah
waktu pemakaian bahan bakar dicatat agar bahan bakar kembali mengisi gelas
ukur.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>i.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Mengulangi poin 5 – 8 untuk bukaan
trottle yang lain yaitu </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">20%</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">,</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">2</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">5%,</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">30</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">%,</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">35% </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">dan </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">4</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">0%.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>j.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Setelah pengambilan data selesai,
beban diputar keposisi nol dengan menurunkan bukaan throttel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>k.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Mesin dimatikan dengan
dikembalikan ke posisi nol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">B. Lengkapi gambar Motor Diesel serta Fungsi dan Kegunaannya<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 13.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<v:shape alt="IMG_0001" id="Picture_x0020_49" o:spid="_x0000_s1121" style="height: 396pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 63.45pt; margin-top: 5.55pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 353.25pt; z-index: -41;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="IMG_0001" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image022.jpg">
</v:imagedata><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></v:shape></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Keterangan gambar :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Reservoir
bahan bakar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pembuangan
bahn bakar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Selang
penduga<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Selang
pengembalian<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kepala
silinder<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Saluran
gas buang (exhaust)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Katup
buang (outlet valve)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Nosel<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Katup
isap (inlet valve)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penyaring udara<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penyaring bahan bakar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Selang bahan bakar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Blok silinder<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Water jacket<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">piston<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>16.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Cincin kompresi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>17.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Cincin pelumas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>18.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pena piston<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>19.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Batang piston (connecting rod)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>20.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pompa bahan bakar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>21.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Selang tekanan tinggi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>22.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Transmisi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>23.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Gigi cam<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>24.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Poros cam<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>25.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Poros engkol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>26.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pena engkol<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>27.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penduga pelumas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>28.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pembuang pelumas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>29.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bak uji<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 1cm; text-indent: -1cm;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>30.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Roda gila (fly wheel)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Fungsi alat :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Tempat bahan bakar,<span> </span>digunakan untuk menyimpan bahan bakar
sebelum digunakan untuk pemakaian pada mesin <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kran bahan bakar, digunakan
untuk menutup dan membuka saluran dari tangki bahan bakar ke ruang mesin.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Selang penduga, digunakan untuk melihat
jumlah bahan bakar yang masih tersisa di dalam tangki bahan bakar.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kran Selang
pengembalian,<span> </span>digunakan untuk mengembalikan<span> </span>sisa bahan bakar yang tidak digunakan
dalam proses pembakaran .<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Tutup silinder, digunakan
sebagai tempat kedudukan dari busi (motor bensin), pengabut (motor
diesel), katup-katup silinder, saluran isap, saluran buang dan lainnya .<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Saluran gas buang, digunakan
untuk membuang sisa hasil pembakaran.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Katup buang, digunakan sebagai katup
untuk membuang sisa hasil pembakaran yang kemudian disalurkan ke saluran
buang.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pengabut, digunakan untuk
mengabutkan bahan bakar agar bahan bakar dapat menghasilkan tekanan yang
tinggi yang dapat terjadi proses pembakaran dalam ruang mesin. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Katup isap,<span> </span>digunakan sebagai katup yang mengisap
udara dari atmosfer yang digunakan bersama-sama bahan bakar untuk
melakukan proses pembakaran.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penyaring udara, digunakan untuk
menyaring udara yang msuk kedalam ruang bakar agar kotoran tidak masuk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penyaring bahan bakar, digunakan untuk menyaring bahan
bakar sebelum masuk ruang bakar.<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Selang bahan bakar, digunakan untuk menyaluran bahan
bakar dari tangki ke ruang mesin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Blok silinder, digunakan untuk tempat perpindahantenaga
panas menjadi tenaga mekanik dengan gerakn bolak-balik karena ekspansi dan
kompresi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">.</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Air pendingin, digunakan untuk flida pendingin agar mesin
tidak mengalami overheating.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Torak, digunakan untuk menekan campuran bahan bakar
dengan udara agar dapat terjadi proses pembakaran dalam silinder.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>16.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Cicin kompresi, digunakan untuk mencegah kebocoran pada
tekanan tinggi dalam ruang bakar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>17.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Cincin pelumas, digunakan untuk mengikis kelebihan oli
pada dinding silinder dan mencegah minyak pelumas tidak masuk ke dalam ruang
bakar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>18.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pena torak, digunakan untuk </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">menghubungkan torak
dengan ujung batang torak</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">.</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>19.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Batang
torak, digunakan untuk </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">menghubungkan torak dengan poros engkol.</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>20.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pompa
bahan bakar, digunakan untuk memompa abahn bakar dari tangki ke ruang bakar.</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>21.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Selang
tekanan tinggi, digunakan untuk menyalurkan tekanan tinggi dari ruang mesin.</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>22.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Regulator,
digunakan untuk mengatur tekanan dalam ruang bakar.</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>23.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Gigi
kam, untuk mentransmisi daya dari poros engkol.</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -28.9pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>24.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Poros lonjong /camshaft, untuk mengatur buka tutup katup.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Poros engkol,digunakan untuk </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">mengubah gerakan lurus
torak yang diperoleh torak didalam silinder pada gerak kerja menjadi gerak
putar dengan melalui batang-batang torak dan menjaga pergerakan torak dalam
langkah-langkah selanjutnya</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pena engkol, menghubungkan batang torak dengan poros
engkol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>27.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penduga pelumas, alat untuk mengecek tinggi rendahnya
pelumas dalam mesin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>28.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pembuang pelumas, untuk membuang pelumas saat akan
diadakan penggantian pelumas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>29.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kotak engkol, tempat meletakkan poros engkol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>30.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Roda gila,berfungsi untuk menyimpan energi untuk membsntu
poros engkol berputar dalam melakukan gerakan putar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">BAGIAN-BAGIAN UTAMA MESIN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Secara
kasar mesin ini dibagi menjadi dua bagian yaitu mesin itu sendiri dan
kelengkapan mesin. Dalam bab ini dibahas mengenai unit yang merupakan bagian
langsung yang menghasilkan tenaga terdiri atas blok silinder, kepala silinder,
torak dan poros engkol serta bagian-bagian lainnya.</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: black none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: 1pt none black; color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 0pt; line-height: 150%; padding: 0cm;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>A.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Komponen yang tidak bergerak<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Blok silinder<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Blok silinder sebagai bentuk dasar kerja mesin dan
biasanya dibuat dari cast iron tetapi belakangan ini banyak juga blok silinder
yang terbuat dari aluminium dengan maksud untuk mengurangi berat dan menambah
panas radiasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Beberapa silinder disusun pada blok mesin yakni blok
silinder yang bagian atasnya ditutup dengan kepala silinder dan bagian bawahnya
membentuk ruang engkol ( crankase ) untuk pemasangan poros engkol, sumbu nok
dan mekanisme katup. Pada sisi blok silinder dibuatkan bagian-bagian untuk pemasangan
kelengkapan seperti starter, alternator, pompa bensin, dan distributor.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><b><i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Silinder<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Silinder
merupakan bagian yang memindahkan tenaga panas ke tenaga mekanik dan untuk
tujuan ini torak bergerak naik turun memadatkan gas, untuk memperoleh tenaga
mesin yang sebesar mungkin diusahakan agar tidak terjadi kebocoran-kebocoran
pada gas yang dibakar diantara torak dan kepala silinder.<o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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</span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><b><i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pelapis silinder<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Bila dinding
silinder yang terbuat dari cast iron telah menjadi aus dan pengeboran tak
mungkin dilakukan maka pelapis silinder ditambahkan. Adapun bebarapa macam
pelapis silinder yakni :<span> </span>Pelapis silinder
basah dan pelapis silinder kering.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><b><i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Jumlah silinder<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Mesin digolongkan atas dua macam berdasarkan jumlah silindernya yakni mesin
yang bersilinder tunggal dan mesin yang bersilinder banyak. Pada umunya mesin
memiliki jumlah silinder 2 sampai 12. Mesin dibawah 1000 cc mempunyai 2 atau 4
silinder, 1900 sampai dengan 2000 cc mempunyai 4 atau 6 silinder.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span></i></b><!--[endif]--><b><i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Susunan silinder<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Silinder ini tersusun dalam satu garis memanjang, model v dan model
horizontal ataupun modelnya berlawanan arah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Model satu garis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Silinder disusun satu garis pada sebuah blok silinder dan
biasanya terdapat pada mesin dengan jumlah silinder 4 atau 6 buah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Model V<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Blok silinder dibuat dalam bentuk V dan pada blok ini
silinder tersusun lurus pada kedua bagian blok silinder. Silinder – silinder
yang ada pada kedua belah pihak menghadap ke arah poros engkol, 8 silinder dan
terdiri atas 4 silinder tiap sisinya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Model horizontal berlawanan arah<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Silinder silinder ini disusun dalam satu garis horizontal
dan mesin model ini umumya banyak digunakan pada bis-bis yang dipasangkan di bawah
lantai.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p> </o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<ol start="5" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a"><br clear="ALL" />
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bak engkol<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></li>
</ol>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bagian bawah
blok silinder disebut bak engkol (crankcase) pada bagian atasnya dibuat
sedemikian rupa untuk pemasangan bantalan poros engkol, yang dijamin oleh
bantalan-bantalan poros engkol bagian bawah<span>
</span>dan kapnya sebagian besar pada mesin, sumbu nok (camshaft) juga dipasang
searah (paralel) dengan poros engkol dan dan dijamin dengan bantalan-bantalan
sumbu nok (camsahft bearing). Kegunaan dari karter adalah untuk menampung
minyak mesin, terbuat dari baja yang dipress. Pada bak engkol juga dilengkapi dengan
pipa ventilasi untuk menghubungkan ruang dalam dengan udara. Karter dibaut di bagian
bawah bak engkol dan diantaranya diselipkan gasket.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">2. Kepala silinder<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kepala
silinder dibuat dibagian atas blok silinder dan diantaranya diselipkan gasket.
Bagian bawah kepala silinder dibuat berbentuk cekung sebagai ruang bakarnya.
Selain dilengkapi dengan ruang bakar juga dilengkapi dengan lubang untuk
pemasangan busi dan pemasangan untuk katup-katup.<o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p> </o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 84pt;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<br clear="ALL" />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span>B.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Komponen yang bergerak<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">1</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">. Torak (Piston)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Konstruksi torak<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></li>
</ol>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Konstruksi torak seperti terlihat pada gambar. Kepala torak biasanya
berbentuk datar tetapi ada juga yang berbentuk cekung yakni untuk mesin 2 tak
dan pada sisinya diberikan celah untuk<span>
</span>pemasangan cincin dengan jumlah 2 atau 3 celah, diberikan bos pada
bagian engah torak untuk duduknya pen torak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p> </o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Model torak<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></li>
</ol>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sudah banyak usaha yang telah dilakukan agar piston itu dapat
berfungsi<span> </span>seefektif mungkin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Torak model tepi<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Torak
ini dilengkapi dengan parit berbentuk T atau U untuk </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">m</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">enampung ekspansi panas dan membentuk celah sisi ( side
trust</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> )</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a">
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Torak
model slop <o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></li>
</ol>
</ol>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Torak model<span> </span>ini dipotong bagian
bawahnya tetapi tidak pada side trust. Hal ni dilakukan untuk mengurangi bobotnya
dan seminimal mungkin untuk mengurangi gesekan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="3" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Torak autotermis<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
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<v:shape alt="cus10090" id="Picture_x0020_15" o:spid="_x0000_s1107" style="height: 108pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 68.25pt; margin-top: 6.15pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 150pt; z-index: 10;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada
bagian atas torak terdapat sebuah cincin baja yang<span> </span>mempunyai pemuaian rendah untuk membatasi
perubahan bentuk yang disebabkan oleh panas.<o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><ol start="4" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Torak lonjong<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
</ol>
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<v:imagedata cropleft="38726f" cropright="5958f" croptop="52495f" gain="1.25" o:title="cus10090" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image037.jpg">
</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Torak
memuai lebih sedikit dibagian bos disebabkan pemakaian metal pada bos-bos dan
sisi torak. Oleh sebab itu diameter torak dibuat agak lebih kecil dibagian bos
dengan demikian torak akan menjadi bulat benar bila dalam keadaan </span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">memuai.<o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">2</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">. Pen Torak<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Guna pena torak untuk
menghubungkan torak dengan ujung batang torak. Pen torak ini terbuat dari pipa
untuk mengurangi berat, dan pada kedua sisinya dijamin oleh bos-bos yang
terdapat pada torak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 211.8pt 0.0001pt 24pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Untuk mencegah agar pen torak tidak keluar dari torakdipasangkan sesuatu
dengan beberapa metode sebagai berikut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: 205.8pt; text-align: justify;"><v:shape alt="cus10096" id="Picture_x0020_17" o:spid="_x0000_s1105" style="height: 151.5pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 266.85pt; margin-top: -65.7pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 137.25pt; z-index: 12;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">model
bebas mimikul (full floting)<o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: 223.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">model setengah
bebas memikul (semi floting type) <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: 205.8pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">fyxed type<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">3</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">. Ring Piston (cincin torak)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 199.8pt 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<v:shape alt="cus10095" id="Picture_x0020_18" o:spid="_x0000_s1104" style="height: 153pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 253.35pt; margin-top: 103.6pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 168pt; z-index: 13;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata cropbottom="47567f" cropleft="14543f" cropright="6095f" croptop="1584f" grayscale="t" o:title="cus10095" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image039.jpg">
</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ring piston
berfungsi sebagai alat perapat menjaga agar gas tidak keluar selama langkah
kompresi dan kerja dalam ruang bakar, untuk mengikis minyak pelumas dari
dinding silinder, mencegah minyak pelumas masuk kedalam ruang bakar dan memindahkan
sebagian besar panas torak ke dinding silinder.<o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 1.8pt 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ring piston ini dibuat dari besi khusus dan diberi
potongan untuk memudahkan pemasangan kedalam alur pegas yang terdapat pada
torak. Diameter luar pegas sedikit besar dari diameter torak.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 1.8pt 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<v:shape alt="image" id="Picture_x0020_74" o:spid="_x0000_s1103" style="height: 150.3pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 156.6pt; margin-top: 39.8pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 150.3pt; z-index: -33;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata blacklevel="6554f" gain="1.25" o:title="image" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image040.jpg">
</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ring piston pada
mesin diesel menggunakan tiga ring piston yakni dua ring kompressi dan satu
ring pelumas. <o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 1.8pt 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 187.8pt 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 24pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 187.8pt 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 24pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin: 0cm 187.8pt 0.0001pt 30pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 24pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: 187.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: 187.8pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">4</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">. Batang torak <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Merupakan bagian yang menghubungkan torak dengan poros engkol.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Konstruksi batang torak<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Batang torak secara berulang-ulang bekerja dengan penuh kekuatan menerima
beban oleh karena itu batang torak dibuat dari baja spesial.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bagian batang torak yang berhubungan dengan pen torak disebut small end dan
bagian yang besar disebut big end. Big end dibuat dalam bentuk split yang
dipasangkan pada kranpin yang diikatkan dengan baut-baut yang terbuat dari
logam khusus. Pada batang torak ini dari small end ke big end dibuatkan lubang
pelumas. Lubang pelumas baru akan terbuka apabila torak berada di TMA.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bearing cap<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Tutup bantalan adalah tengah bagian bawah dari ujung besar bagian torak
yang mempunyai sisi pelapis bantalan (bearing linear). Tutup bantalan disebut
juga tutup batang torak .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<v:shape alt="cus10091" id="Picture_x0020_19" o:spid="_x0000_s1102" style="height: 141.95pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 136.7pt; margin-top: 4.4pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 174pt; z-index: 14;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata cropleft="4012f" cropright="5350f" croptop="25869f" grayscale="t" o:title="cus10091" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image041.jpg">
</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p> </o:p></span></v:shape></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<br clear="ALL" />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">5</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">. Poros engkol ( crank shaft )<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 60pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Poros engkol merupakan bagian yang mempunyai tugas penting untuk mengubah
gerakan lurus torak yang diperoleh torak didalam silinder pada gerak kerja
menjadi gerak putar dengan melalui batang-batang torak dan menjaga pergerakan
torak dalam langkah-langkah selanjutnya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 60pt;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Konstruksi poros engkol <o:p></o:p></span></i></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Poros engkol terdiri atas crank journal yang didukung oleh
bantalan-bantalan utama crankase bermain dan merupakan pusat putaran<span> </span>yang mana pada crank pin ini dipasangkan
batang torak dan crank arm yang menghubungkan antara crankjournal dan crankpin.
Sebagai tambahan diberikan balance weight untuk menjamin keseimbangan
perputaran.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<v:shape alt="cus10093" id="Picture_x0020_21" o:spid="_x0000_s1101" style="height: 92.25pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 83.85pt; margin-top: 1.75pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 240pt; z-index: 15;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata grayscale="t" o:title="cus10093" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image042.jpg">
</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p> </o:p></span></v:shape></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1"><br clear="ALL" />
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bentuk<span> </span>poros
engkol dan urutan pengapian<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada mesin 4 tak hanya ada satu kali langkah kerja yang diperoleh dari
empat kali langkah dalam satu silinder. Untuk itulah perlu dibentuk poros
engkol agar menjamin perputaran poros tetap lembut yang disesuaikan dengan
urutan pengapiannya pada mesin yang bersilinder banyak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Urutan terjadinya pembakaran disebut urutan pengapian. Urutan ini
dinyatakan dalam bentuk nomor silinder dimana pengapian pertama terjadi pada
silinder no 1 . <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Terdapat banyak urutan pengapian yang berbeda beda pada mesin 4 langkah
yang bersilinder banyak diantaranya, yaitu <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 96pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">tipe pertama 1-2-4-3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 96pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">tipe kedua 1-3-4-2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify;">
<v:shape alt="cus10092" id="Picture_x0020_22" o:spid="_x0000_s1100" style="height: 126.85pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 77.1pt; margin-top: 2.5pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 4in; z-index: 16;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata cropbottom="471f" cropright="1192f" grayscale="t" o:title="cus10092" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image043.jpg">
</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p> </o:p></span></v:shape></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 78pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<br clear="ALL" />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">6.
Penyemprot Bahan Bakar<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penyemprotan
bahan bakar ke dalam silinder dilaksanakan dengan menggunakan sebuah alat yang
dinamai <i>penyemprot bahan bakar</i>. Di
samping beberapa persyaratan lain yang diperlukan, bahan bakar yang
disemprotkan itu harus habis terbakar sesuai dengan prestasi yang diharapkan.
Dapat dikatakan fungsi penyemprot bahan bakar adalah:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">memasukkan
bahan bakar ke dalam silinder sesuai dengan kebutuhan;<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">mengabutkan
bahan bakar sesuai dengan derajat pengabutan yang diminta; dan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">mendistribusikan
bahan bakar untuk memperoleh pembakaran sempurna dalam waktu yang ditetapkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Tekanan udara di dalam silinder sudah sangat
tinggi (35-50) ketika bahan bakar disemprotkan. Dengan sendirinya tekanan
penyemprotan haruslah lebih tinggi dari tekanan udara tersebut. Kelebihan
tekanan itu juga diperlukan untuk memperoleh kecepatan penyemprotan (kecepatan
bahan bakar keluar dari penyemprot) tertentu, yaitu sesuai dengan derajat
pengabutan yang diinginkan. Besarnya kecepatan penyemprotan ini dapat
dinyatakan dengan persamaan,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">C = C<sub>D<span style="display: none; font-variant: small-caps;">D</span></sub><span style="position: relative; top: 15pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" o:ole="" style="height: 36.75pt; width: 45pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image044.wmz">
</v:imagedata><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1025"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675544">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></v:shape></span><span style="position: relative; top: 5pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1026" o:ole="" style="height: 17.25pt; width: 9pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image045.wmz">
</v:imagedata><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1026"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675545">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></v:shape></span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>
</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>di
mana,<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 106.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">C<span> </span>= kecepatan penyemprotan, m/detik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 106.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">C<sub>D<span> </span></sub>= koefisien aliran<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 106.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">g<span> </span>= percepatan grafitasi, m/detik<sup>2</sup><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 106.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; position: relative; top: 2pt;"><v:shape id="_x0000_i1027" o:ole="" style="height: 12.75pt; width: 11.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image046.wmz">
</v:imagedata><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
<o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="Equation.3" ShapeID="_x0000_i1027"
DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1390675546">
</o:OLEObject>
</xml><![endif]--></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">P<span> </span>= kelebihan tekanan penyemprotan, kg/m<sup>2</sup><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 106.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>g</span></span><sub><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">f<span> </span></span></sub><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">=<span>
</span>berat jenis bahan bakar, kg/m<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 9pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Makin besar kecepatan penyemprotan makin
tinggi derajat pengabutannya. Kecepatan tersebut dapat mencapai 400 m/detik
dengan tekanan penyemprotan 70 – 1000 kg/cm<sup>2</sup>. Dengan sendirinya
konstruksi dan harga system penyemprotan bertambah mahal, sesuai dengan tekanan
penyemprotan yang digunakan. Komponen penyemprot yang mengatur bentuk pancaran
bahan bakar dinamai <i>nosel</i>. Ada
beberapa macam nosel; dua diantaranya, yang banyak digunakan pada motor Diesel
modern adalah <i>nosel katup jarum</i> dan <i><span> </span>nosel
pasak</i> seperti terlukis pada gambar di bawah ini :<i> </i><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 99pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><v:shape alt="HAL" id="Picture_x0020_4" o:spid="_x0000_i1035" style="height: 152.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 254.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="HAL" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image047.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 13.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Kedua jenis nosel ini berbeda bentuk ujung
katupnya. Kabut bahan bakar yang keluar dari nosel katup jarum berbentuk
kerucut sedangkan dari nosel pasak berbentuk selubung kerucut. Nosel katup
jarum dapat berlubang satu atau lebih, berdiameter sangat kecil kira-kira 0,25
mm atau lebih sedikit. Diameter lubang nosel pasak bisa sampai 3 mm.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 13.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Boleh
dikatakan, nosel katup jarum pada umumnya digunakan pada motor Diesel dengan
ruang bakar terbuka sedangkan nosel pasak banyak digunakan pada motor Diesel
dengan ruang bakar kamar muka.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 13.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Tekanan
penyemprotan dihasilkan oleh pompa bahan bakar tekanan tinggi. Melalui pipa
tekanan tinggi yang berdiameter antara 1,5 – 4 mm (bergantung pada jumlah bahan
bakar yang harus disemprotkan) bahan bakar mengalir ke penyemprot dan akhirnya
masuk ke ruang tekanan di dalam nosel. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 13.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Di dalam nosel, katup menutup lubang nosel
karena adanya gaya pegas yang besarnya dapat diatur sesuai dengan tekanan
penyemprotan yang dikehendaki. Apabila gaya bahan bakar yang ada di dalam ruang
tekanan tersebut lebih besar daripada gaya pegas, katup nosel akan terangkat
sehingga lubang nosel terbuka. Dengan kecepatan tinggi mengalirlah bahan bakar
ke dalam silinder melalui lubang nosel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 13.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Jadi,
bahan bakar barulah dapat masuk ke dalam ruang bakar apabila tekanannya cukup
besar untuk melawan gaya pegas yang menekan katup nosel itu.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">7.
Pompa Bahan Bakar Tekanan Tinggi</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span></span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Berikut ini adalah pompa bahan bakar tekanan
tinggi yang banyak dipakai pada system pompa pribadi. Fungsi pompa bahan bakar
adalah memasukkan bahan bakar ke dalam ruang bakar pada saat yang telah
ditetapkan dalam jumlah sesuai dengan daya yang harus dihasilkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;">
<v:shape alt="HAL" id="_x0000_s1099" style="height: 150.75pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 91.35pt; margin-top: 17.85pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 285pt; z-index: -32;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="HAL" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image048.jpg">
</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>
</span><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 9pt;">
<v:shape alt="HAL" id="_x0000_s1098" style="height: 118.5pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 102.45pt; margin-top: -14.55pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 266.25pt; z-index: -36;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="HAL" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image049.jpg">
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<v:shape alt="Fuelpump" id="Picture_x0020_78" o:spid="_x0000_s1097" style="height: 102.75pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 123.6pt; margin-top: 1.75pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 152.25pt; z-index: -30;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penekanan akan terjadi
apabila hubungan antara ruang disebelah atas plunyer dan ruang isap ada dalam
tertutup.Kapasitas pompa diatur dengan jalan mengubah (memutar) posisi plunyer
terhadap lubang hisap,yaitu mengatur posisi plunyer terhadap lubang hisap.Jdi
panjang langkah plunyer,adalah konstan;tetapi dengan jalan memutar plunyer,kita
mengaturnya saat berrakhirnya langkah tekan.Pada kapasitas (lihat gambar),ruang
di atas plunyer selalu berhubungan dengan ruang isap.Sedangkan saat
penyemprotan bahan bakar ke dalam ruang bakar dapat diatur dengan jalan
mengubah posisi poros (kam) pompa relatif terhadap poros engkol<b>.</b></span><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">8.
</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">B</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">usi Pemanas<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Busi atau </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">glow</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"> plug adalah peranti
untuk </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">mengabutkan
bahan bakar agar mudah bercampur dengan udara dan mudah terjadi proses pembakaran</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Busi pemanas ini terletak dekat
dengan ujung nossel.<em><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></em></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">9.
Pompa Minyak</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pompa
minyak menghisap minyak dari bak oli dan menyalurkan ke seluruh bagian-bagian
mesin. Saringan minyak dipasangkan pada lubang masuk pompa oli (Oil Pump Inlet)
untuk menyaring kotoran-kotoran. Pompa minyak digerakkan oleh batang
distributor atau sumbu nok (camshaft gear). Pompa minyak yang banyak digunakan
antara lain :</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -31.5pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pompa
model roda gigi (Gear Pump Type)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pompa
model roda gigi ini terdiri dari body dan dua buah roda gigi yang berkaitan di
dalam body. Bila salah satu dari roda gigi ini berputar, maka roda gigi lainnya
akan berputar berlawanan arah. Karena itu minyak pelumas yang terdapat di
antara celah-celah roda gigi dan body didesak keluar dari lubang masuk (inlet)
ke lubang buang (outlet). Pompa minyak ini mempunyai konstruksi yang sederhana
dan dapat bekerja dengan baik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 42pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 6pt;">
<v:shape id="Picture_x0020_79" o:spid="_x0000_s1093" style="height: 93.8pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 139.65pt; margin-top: 0.4pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 134pt; z-index: -29;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pompa
Model Rotor (Rotor Type Pump)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<v:shape id="Picture_x0020_80" o:spid="_x0000_s1092" style="height: 98.95pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 219.85pt; margin-top: 265.7pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 165.35pt; z-index: -28;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata bilevel="t" blacklevel="-11796f" cropright="3511f" croptop="5011f" gain="99297f" grayscale="t" o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image055.png">
</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada pompa model
rotor ini, driver gear dan driven gear berkaitan bersama dalam bodi pompa.
Poros drive gear dibuat eksentrik terhadap bodinya dengan demikian pada waktu
drive gear berputar, driven gear juga akan berputar dan volume ruangan di
antara drive gear dan driven gear akan berubah-ubah. Minyak pelumas melalui
celah masuk (inlet port) yang terdapat di antara gear dan diteruskan ke bagian
lainnya dengan jalan memperkecil ruang drive dan driven gear. Pompa minyak ini
mempunyai kemampuan kerja yang sama dengan pompa minyak model roda<span> </span>gigi (Gear Type Pump) dan keuntungan lainnya
ialah mempunyai bentuk yang lebih kecil sehingga banyak digunakan.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span><b>9.1</b> <b>Pengatur Tekanan Minyak (Oil Pressure Regulatror)</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bila
mesin bekerja dengan putaran tinggi, maka pompa minyak akan menyalurkan minyak
yang berlebihan. Pengatur tekanan minyak berfungsi mengatur tekanan minyak agar
tidak terjadi penyaluran yang berlebihan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pengatur
tekanan minyak ini terdiri dari katup yang biasanya berbentuk bola (Steel Ball)
beserta pegasnya yang dipasangkan pada saluran minyak yang terdapat pada pompa
minyak. Bila minyak mengalir dalam keadaan normal, lubang bypass tertutup oleh
katup. Tetapi bila jumlah minyak yang mengalir bertambah, tekanan minyak naik
dan akan membuka katup sehingga kelebihan minyak akan mengalir kembali ke bak
oli melalui lubang bypass.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span><b>9.2</b> <b>Sistem Ventilasi</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sistem
ventilasi ini berfungsi untuk menjaga kekentalan dan kemurnian minyak pelumas.
Suhu di dalam bak engkol akan naik pada saat mesin bekerja. Pada keadaan ini
bahan-bahan yang tidak terbakar beserta air akan berada dalam kondisi uap
(vapor). bahan-bahan tersebut harus segera dibuang. Untuk itu dipasangkan pipa
ventilasi yang menghubungkan bak engkol dengan udara luar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span><b>9.3</b> <b>Saringan Oli (Oil Filter)</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Dalam
jangka waktu tertentu minyak pelumas akan kotor. Hal ini diakibtkan adanya
partikel-partikel logam, kotoran dari udara (debu), karbon, dan bahan-bahan
lainnya yang masuk ke dalam minyak pelumas tersebut. Akibatnya akan memperbesar
keausan dan kemungkinan terjadinya panas yang berlebihan (overheating).
Saringan minyak biasanya<span> </span>dipasangkan di
bagian luar mesin untuk memudahkan penggantian elemen saringan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span><b>9.4</b> <b>Batang pengukur minyak</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 42pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada
batang pengukur tersebut terdapat huruf F dan huruf L. Bila minyak
terlihat<span> </span>berada di antara F dan L
berarti volumenya cukup. Di atas F berarti berlebihan sedangkan di bawah L
berarti kurang dan harus ditambah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">10.</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> <b>Katup<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Katup
di mana<span> </span>campuran<span> </span>udara<span>
</span>bensin<span> </span>masuk disebut katup hisap<span> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">(
Intake Valve ) dan tempat di mana gas buang keluar disebut katup buiang (
Exhaust Valve ). Setiap silinder mempunyai katup hisap dan katup buang.
Katup-katup harus tahan terhadap panas, dibuat dari bahan yang tahan terhadap
panas, seperti Nickel Chrome ( Baja Chrom Nickel ).Pada umumnya katup berbentuk
seperti jamur dan disebut Poppet Valve.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bagian-bagian Katup<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="a">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Katup mempunyai bentuk kerucut 45 derajat atas 30
derajat. Bila katup tertutup, katup akan menempel dengan rapat pada
dudukan katup. Katup hisap biasanya mempunyai diameter lebih besar
daripada katup buang dengan maksud dapat menambah efisiensi pengisian.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Batang
katup </span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Batang
katup dibuat untuk bergerak di dalam penghantar batang katup ( Valve Stem Guide
). Karena itulah katup harus dapat bergerak dengan baik. Pada bagian bawah
batang katup terdapat alur untuk tempat pemasangan Spring Retainer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pengerak-pengerak
katub<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pegas
Katup<o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pegas katup adalah
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dengan satu pegas pada setiap katup, tetapi ada juga yang menggunakan dua buah
pegas yang mempunyai tegangan yang berbeda. </span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Apabila tegangan pegas
lemah, kemungkinan gas akan keluar dari katup dan tenaga mesin menjadi kurang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">2.Nok dan Sumbu
Nok<span> </span>( Cam and Camshaft )<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Valve Lifter
ditempatkan di atas nok dan membuat gesekan turun naik, menurut bentuk nok. </span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bila gerakan ini
dapat dipindahkan ke katup dengan beberapa link, katup juga akan bergerak ke
atas dan ke bawah. Bentuk nok menentukan gerak lifternya, atau dengan kata
lain, keadaan membuka tutupnya katup.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Camshaft
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katup-katup. Nok dibuat sesuai dengan sudut-sudut yang telah ditentukan dengan
urutan-urutan pengapian dan masa kerja katup. Camshaft juga dilengkapi deangan
sebuah roda gigi untuk menggerakkan distributor dan sebuah nok untuk
menggerakkan pompa bensin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt;">CARA KERJA i- VTEC <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Untuk mengenal i-VTEC lebih dalam, harus dipahami cara kerja VTEC. Teknologi
ini dilahirkan Honda untuk memperoleh mesin yang mampu bekerja sip pada putaran
bawah (rendah) dan oke pada putaran atas (tinggi). Dengan cara ini karakter mesin
konvensional yang “kaku” bisa diatasi.<br />
<br />
Sebelum generasi VTEC diciptakan Honda, sebuah mesin hanya bagus pada kondisi
tertentu. Misalnya, mesin sangat responsif pada putaran tinggi, namun pada
putaran putaran rendah, dipastikan payah. Saat diajak jalan santai, mesin
“mbrebet”.<br />
<br />
Komponen yang sangat menentukan karaktetristik mesin adalah katup. Utamanya
pada mesin 4-tak (langkah) dengan piston bergerak bolak-balik. Rangkaian kerja
dari keempat langkah itu adalah, isap, kompresi, usaha dan buang. Untuk mengatur
siklus kerja tersebut, mesin harus dilengkapi dengan komponen yang disebut klep
atau katup. Pada setiap silinder digunakan dua klep dengan tugas berbeda, yaitu
klep isap dan buang.<br />
<br />
Klep isap, bertugas mengatur masuknya campuran udara dan bahan bakar ke dalam
silinder atau ruang bakar. Sedangkan klep buang, mengatur aliran sisa
pembakaran keluar dari mesin atau ke knalpot. Cara klep mengatur aliran
tersebut adalah dengan bergerak atau naik dari dudukannya.<br />
<br />
Saat naik atau terangkat, terbentuk celah yang digunakan campuran udara dan
bahan bakar masuk ke dalam silinder atau ruang bakar. Campuran tersebut masuk
karena diisap oleh komponen bernama piston. Sedangkan untuk katup buang, celah
tersebut digunakan oleh gas buang ke luar dari silinder atau menuju ke ruang
bebas karena didorong oleh piston.<br />
<br />
Waktu buka katup harus diatur sesuai dengan kondisi kerja mesin. Pastinya,
katup isap mulai membuka saat mesin akan melakukan langkah isap. Begitu juga
dengan langkah buang. Katup akan menutup menjelang akhir dari masing-masing
langkah kerja. Lama katup membuka dan ketinggian terangkat dari dudukannya,
sangat menentukan efisiensi dan performa mesin.<br />
<br />
<b>Pengerak Katup</b><br />
Untuk mengaktifkan katup yang bergerak maju mundur, digunakan mekanisme yang
disebut “kem” (cam). Nama lain dari komponen ini adalah “nok” atau bubungan.
Bentuknya, bila dilihat dari sisi penampang, bulat dengan bagian tertentu
menonjol, mencuat atau membentuk cuping. Bagian yang mencuat inilah sangat
penting. Bentuk atau profilnya sangat menentukan tinggi angkat katup dan
lamanya membuka katup. Di samping itu, profil kem juga menimbulkan efek fisika
saat campuran udara dan bakar mengalir ke dalam mesin. Misalnya karena
tiba-tiba kem mengangkat katup, maka campuran udara dah bakar yang mengalir ke dalam
ruang bakar menimbulkan efek pusaran.<br />
<br />
Kendati kem yang menentukan gerakan katup, namun kedua komponen tersebut tidak
bisa berhubungan secara langsung. Masih ada mekanisme lain yang digunakan. Saat
ini yang paling banyak adalah pelatuk katup yang disebut juga “rocker arm” dan
mangkok (bucket). Khusus untuk mesin VTEC kebanyakan menggunakan mekanisme
pelatuk. Hanya pada sepeda motor, Honda memasangkan VTEC dengan sistem bucket
tappet.<br />
<br />
Pelatuklah yang disodok oleh kem. Setelah itu baru diteruskan ke katup. Semua
kem yang digunakan untuk menggerakkan katup berada dalam satu unit dan barisan
yang disebut “camshaft”, nokken as atau poros bubungan. Pada masa kini, setiap
mesin bisa saja menggunakan dua poros kem yang disebut DOHC (double overhead
camshaft) dan satu saja, SOHC (single overhead camshaft).<br />
<br />
Dasar VTEC adalah mesin yang menggunakan tiga kem dan tiga pelatuk katup untuk
setiap silindern. Dua kem bagian luar digunakan pada putaran rendah. Begitu
juga pelatuk, bagian tengah digunakan bekerja untuk putaran tinggi.<br />
<br />
Saat bekerja pada putaran rendah, mesin VTEC menggunakan kem dengan angkatan
kecil. Ketika mesin bekerja antara 4.000 – 6.000 rpm (tergantung model),
kontrol elektronik mengaktifkan sistem hidraulik VTEC. Kem tengah bekerja
dengan mendorong pelatuk tengah yang menyatu dengan dua pelatuk lainnya. Karena
cuping kem tengah lebih tinggi dan sudutnya juga besar, katup dibuka lebih awal
da menutup lebih lama. Di samping itu, dengan cuping yang tinggi, dorongannya
terhadap pelatuk katup dan seterusnya katup, juga lebih besar. Hasilnya, jumlah
campuran udara dan bensin yang sampai ke ruang bakar lebih banyak. Hasilnya,
tenaga yang dihasil besar dan akan mendorong piston bergerak lebih cepat pula.<br />
<br />
Mekanis dasar VTEC lain yang tidak kalah penting keberadaan dan fungsinya
adalah pin yang digerakkan secara hidraulik. Pin ini berada di dalam pelatuk.
Ketika didorong, pin menyebabkan pelatuk katup bekerja dengan gerakan yang
sama. Bila pin bebas, pelatuk bergerak sendiri-sendiri.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>CARA KERJA</b><br />
Ketika mobil melaju pada putaran mesin tinggi, komputer mesin mengaktifkan
solenoid untuk VTEC. Selanjutnya, oli mesin yang bertekanan tinggi mengalir ke
sistem hidraulik pin pada pelatuk katup isap. Akibat dari pergeseran pin
tersebut, ketiga pelatuk bekerja sebagai satu unit. Pada saat ini, pelatuk
digerakkan oleh kem dengan cuping tinggi. Hasilnya mesin bekerja untuk
menghasilkan tenaga yang lebih besar pada putaran tinggi.<br />
<br />
Ketika putaran mesin turun di bawah batas kerja VTEC, solenoid menutup aliran
hidraulik atau oli yang menuju ke pin. Karena tidak ada tekanan, pin kembali ke
posisi bebas semula. Pelatuk kembali bekerja secara sendiri-sendiri.<br />
<br />
Untuk mengatur kerja VTEC, digunakan parameter, yaitu suhu mesin, tekanan oli
dan kecepatan kendaraan. Dengan cara seperti itu, saat mobil diam namun gas
digeber, VTEC tidak bekerja.<br />
Sistem juga dilengkapi dengan pemantau. Fungsinya, bila terjadi gangguan,
Engine Control Module (ECM) membuat kode dan menghidupkan lampu “check engine”.<br />
<br />
Karena menggunakan oli, kerja VTEC bisa terganggu karena oli mesin kurang,
kotor atau tekanan oli rendah karena adanya kebocoran pada sistem, misalnya
O-ring yang rusak<br />
<br />
<b>Tahapan kerja VTEC</b><br />
<br />
Mekanisme utama VTEC: pin pelatuk dan kem untuk putaran rendah dan tinggi<br />
<br />
Sistem hidraulis dan kontrol VTEC<br />
<br />
Posisi pin pengatur kerja i-VTEC saat putaran rendah. Satu katup tidak aktif<br />
<br />
Kalau VTEC bekerja secara bertahap pada putaran mesin yang telah ditentukan.
Untuk i-VTEC, pengaturan “timing” dan tinggi angkat katup berubah secara terus
menerus atau mengarah ke perubahan progresif. Jadi, bila putaran mesin berubah,
waktu buka dan tutup katup isap dan buang juga berganti.<br />
<br />
Kondisi kerja seperti itulah yang membuat mesin bekerja lebih efisien. Mampu
menghasilkan tenaga dan torsi dalam rentang lebih lebar.<br />
<br />
Untuk i-VTEC, saat mobil melaju pada kecepatan lebih cepat, tinggi angkat katup
juga semakin besar. Waktu buka lebih cepat dan menutup lebih lambat.
Sebaliknya, bila mobil berjalan lambat, tinggi angkat katup mengecil. Waktu
membukanya lebih lambat dan waktu menutup lebih cepat.<br />
<br />
Malah pada putaran rendah, salah satu pelatuk katup di-non aktifkan. Dengan
cara ini, jumlah bahan bakar yang dipasok ke ruang bakar bisa di kurangi atau
menggunakan campuran kurus. Hasilnya, selain menurunkan emisi gas buang, juga mengirit
konsumsi bahan bakar. Jadi, cara kerjanya beda-beda tipis dengan abangnya Si-
VTEC!<br />
<br />
Sangat menguntungkan, namun mekanisme mesin jadi tambah rumit!<br />
<br />
i-VTEC makin banyak diaplikasi Honda pada mobil produk terakhir<br />
<br />
Cara kerja i-VTEC: tinggi angkat katup bervariasai sesuai dengan putaran mesin<br />
<br />
Posisi pin pada pelatuk katup saat mesin bekerja pada putaran tinggi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>piamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5458366533732204239.post-13047155442523332522012-02-13T05:55:00.001-08:002012-02-13T05:55:48.066-08:00SISTEM KEMUDI<link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]>
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<h1 style="margin-top: 0cm;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Courier New";">SISTEM KEMUDI<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sistem kemudi berfungsi mengatur
arah kendaraan dengan cara,membelokkan roda depan. Bila roda kemudi diputar,
kolom kemudi<br />
meneruskan putaran ke roda gigi kemudi. Roda gigi kemudi ini memperbesar momen
putar, sehingga menghasilkan tenaga yang lebih besar untuk menggerakkan roda
depan melalui sambungan-sambungan kemudi (steering linkage).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ada
dua model sistem kemudi yang umum digunakan pada mobil,yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">model recirculating ball <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.jpg"
o:title="3_016"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span><img border="0" height="294" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_178" width="579" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 21.3pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">model rack dan punion<br />
</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_179" o:spid="_x0000_i1039" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:437.25pt;
height:217.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image003.jpg"
o:title="3_008"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="290" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_179" width="583" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kolom
kemudi (steering column) <br />
Kolom kemudi terdiri atas main shaft yang meneruskan putaran roda kemudi ke
roda gigi kemudi, dan kolom kemudi yang mengikat<br />
main shaft ke bodi. Ujung atas dari main shaft dibuat meruncing dan bergigi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Di
ujung inilah roda kemudi diikat dengan sebuah mur. Bagian-bagian dari kolom
kemudi ditunjukkam pada <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_180" o:spid="_x0000_i1038"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:418.5pt;height:288.75pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image005.jpg"
o:title="3_015"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="385" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_180" width="558" /><!--[endif]--></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Roda gigi kemudi (steering gear) <span> </span>Roda gigi kemudi selain berfungsi mengarahkan
roda depan, juga berfungsi sebagai gigi reduksi untuk memperbesar momen
agar kemudi menjadi ringan dan gangguan-gangguan terhadap roda tidak langsung
dirasakan oleh pengemudi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ada beberapa jenis roda gigi kemudi, tetapi
yang banyak digunakan dewasa ini adalah jenis recirculating ball <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_181"
o:spid="_x0000_i1037" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:187.5pt;height:252pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image007.jpg"
o:title="3_007"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="336" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_181" width="250" /><!--[endif]--></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">dan <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%;"><a href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.18.jpg"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_182"
o:spid="_x0000_i1036" type="#_x0000_t75"
href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.18.jpg" style='width:401.25pt;height:222.75pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square' o:button="t">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t"/>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.jpg"
o:title="3_009"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span><img border="0" height="297" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_182" width="535" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a></span></div>
<br />
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Janis recirculating ball digunakan pada
mobil penumpang ukuran sedang sampai besar dan mobil komercial<span> </span>sedangkan jenis rack dan pinion digunakan
pada mobil penumpang ukuran kecil sampai sedang. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">sambunbungan-sambungan
kemudi (steering linkage)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Walaupun mobil bergerak naik-turun, gerakan
roda kemudi harus dapat diteruskan ke roda·roda dengan sangat tepat (akurat)
setiap saat, untuk ilu diperlukan sambungan-sambungan kemudi (steering linkage.
Babarapa model sambungan·sambungan kemudi suspensi rigid <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_183" o:spid="_x0000_i1035" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:425.25pt;
height:225.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.jpg"
o:title="3_002"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="301" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_183" width="567" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
suspensi independen</span><span lang="EN-US"> </span><br />
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_184"
o:spid="_x0000_i1034" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:393.75pt;height:228.75pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.jpg"
o:title="3_004"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="305" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_184" width="525" /><!--[endif]--></span></div>
<br />
<span lang="EN-US"> </span><span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_185" o:spid="_x0000_i1033"
type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:456.75pt;height:198pt;visibility:visible;
mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image015.jpg"
o:title="3_013"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="264" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_185" width="609" /><!--[endif]--></span><br />
<br />
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Power steering<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sistem power steering direncanakan untuk
mengurangi tenaga pengemudian saat mobil bergerak pada putaran rendah dem
menyesuainya pada tingkat tertentu bila kendaraan bererak mulai kecepatan sedang
sampai kecepatan tinggi. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada sistem power steering terdapat bosster
hidraulis yang ditempatkan di bagian tengah mekanisme kemudi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Power
steering model integral<br />
</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_186"
o:spid="_x0000_i1032" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:406.5pt;height:336pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.jpg"
o:title="3_003"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="448" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_186" width="542" /><!--[endif]--></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">memperlihatkan mekanisme power steering model<br />
integral. Bagian utamanya terdiri atas tangki reservoir (berisi fluida),vane
pump yang membangkitkan tenaga hidraulis, gear box yang berisi control valve,
power pinton, dan steerig gear (jenis recirculating balt). pipa-pipa yang
mcngalirkan fluida dan selang-selang fleksibel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Power sfeering model rack dan pinion Power
steering model ini mekanismenya sama dengan model integral, tetapi control
valvenya termasuk di dalam gear housing dan power pistonnya terpisah di dalam
power cylinder.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span><br />
</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_187"
o:spid="_x0000_i1031" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:401.25pt;height:306.75pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image019.jpg"
o:title="3_011"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="409" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image020.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_187" width="535" /><!--[endif]--></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">roda<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Output terakhir dari tenaga putar mesin adalah
pada roda. Sambil memikul berat kendaraan roda juga berfungsi meredam kejutan kejutan
dan menambah kenyamanan pengendara. Roda dapat dibagii menjadi dua bagian,
yaitu pelek roda (disc wheel dan ban (tire).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pelek roda<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US"><br />
</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_188"
o:spid="_x0000_i1030" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:292.5pt;height:202.5pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image021.jpg"
o:title="3_005"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="270" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image021.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_188" width="390" /><!--[endif]--></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Memperlihatkan sebuah model velg roda yang
banyak<br />
digunakan pada mobil penumpang. Velg roda dipasangkan pada poros roda (axle
shaft) dengan menggunakan empat atau enam baut. Baut-baut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ban adalah bagian mobil yang barsentuhan
langsung dengan permukaan jalan. Selain berfungsi meredam kejutan, ban juga
bertugas menjejak dengan gaya geseknya pada jalan selama kendaraan berjalan,
membelok, dan saat pengereman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Menurut konstruksinya ban dapat dibedakan
menjadi ban bias<br />
dan ban radial <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.25.jpg"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_189" o:spid="_x0000_i1029" type="#_x0000_t75"
href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.25.jpg" style='width:473.25pt;height:148.5pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square' o:button="t">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t"/>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image022.jpg"
o:title="3_014"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span><img border="0" height="198" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_189" width="631" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ban bias mengasilkan jalannya kendaraan lebih
lembut, tetapi kemampuan membelok dan ketahanan ausnya kurang. Ban radial
menghasilkan kemampuan membelok dan kemampuan kecepatan tinggi yang baik serta
tahanan gelindingnya rendah. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Daya tahan ausnya lebih tinggi dibanding ban
biasa. Tetapi pada jalan yang tidak rata dengan kecepatan rendah, ban radial
lembut dirasakan pengendara. Menurut penampungan isi udaranya, dapat dibedakan
menjadi ban biasa dan ban tubles<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_190" o:spid="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:467.25pt;
height:150pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image023.jpg"
o:title="3_006"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="200" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image024.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_190" width="623" /><!--[endif]--></span><br />
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada ban biasa, udara ditampung pada ban
dalam. Katup atau pentilnya bersatu dengan ban dalam.Bila ban biasa tertusuk
benda tajam maka akan langsung kempes. Pada ban tubles tidak terdapat ban
dalam, tekanan udara hanya ditahan oleh lapisan ban dalam yang kedap udara.
Katup atau pentilnya langsung terpasang pada pelek. Bila ban tubles tertusuk
benda tajam, tidak langsung menjadi kempes (tekanan udaranya tidak turun
seketika) karena lapisan dalamnya menghasilkan efek merapatkan sendiri.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US"><span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">C a s t e r<br />
Caster adalah sudut antara king pin dengan garis vertikal yang dilihat dari
samping kendaraan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.30.jpg"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_191" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75"
href="http://otomotif.web.id/image/3.30.jpg" style='width:234pt;height:336.75pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square' o:button="t">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t"/>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image025.jpg"
o:title="3_010"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span><img border="0" height="449" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image026.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_191" width="312" /></span><!--[endif]--></span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bila miringnya ke arah belakang disebut
caster positif sebaliknya bila miringnya ke arah depan disebut caster negatif.
Pada umumnya yang dipakai adalah caster positif karena dapat menghasilkan
kestabilan kendaraan saat berjalan lurus dan daya balik kemudi setelah membelok
lebih baik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> King
pin inclination<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Garis sumbu yang melalui ball joint atas dan
ball joint bawah disebut steering axis (sumbu kemudi). Sumbu ini dimiringkan ke
arah dalam sekitar 5-7°. Kemiringan ini dinamakam king pin inclination. Dengan
adanya king pin inclination bersama-sama dengan camber, maka jarak
(offset) akan menjadi sangat kecil, sehingga kemudi akan lebih ringan dan
kejutan akibat pengereman dan percepatan dapat berkurang. Di samping itu,
dengan adanya king pin inclination dapat dihasilkan daya balik kemudi<br />
dengan ,memanfaatkan berat kendaraan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape
id="Picture_x0020_192" o:spid="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:231pt;
height:377.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image027.jpg"
o:title="3"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img border="0" height="503" src="file:///C:/Users/Acer/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image028.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_192" width="308" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Toe-in<br />
Bila dilihat dari atas, roda-roda depan terlihat menyudut kearah dalam di
bagian depan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Yang dimaksud toe-in adalah selisih antara
jarak A dan B (toe-in = B - A). Biasanya selisih ini diatur 2 - 6 mm. Bila
jarak bagian depan (A) lebih besar daripada jarak bagian belakang (B) disebut
toe-out<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
Bila roda-roda depan memiliki camber positif maka bagian atas roda mlring
mengarah ke luar, sehingga roda-roda berusaha menggelinding ke arah luar pada
saat mobil berjalan lurus dan akan terjadi side slip yang berakibat ban cepat
aus. Untuk mencegah hal ini maka diatasi oleh adanya toe-in.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span lang="EN-US"><br />
</span><span style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; color: black;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_194"
o:spid="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style='width:402pt;height:228.75pt;
visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Acer\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image029.jpg"
o:title="3_012"/>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">penyetelan toe-in, cember; dan caster Pada
model suspensi independen, besarnya toe-in distel oleh tie-rod kiri dan kanan,
sedangkan besar sudut camber dan caster distel dengan menambah atau mengurangi
shim yang disisipkan pada upper arm rangka. Pada model suspensi tetap (satu
poros), toe-in distel dengan mengubah-ubah tie-rod yang panjang, sedangkan
besar caster distel dengan menyisipkan busi tirus (bentuk baji) antara pegas
daun dan rumah poros.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>piamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5458366533732204239.post-31279676586414378662012-02-13T05:53:00.001-08:002012-02-13T05:53:04.976-08:00SISTEM PEMBUANGAN<link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">SISTEM
PEMBUANGAN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal;">Skema sistem pembuangan : 8 Ruang bakar. 9 Katup buang. 10 Saluran
buang. 11 Exhaust manifold. 12 Catalytic converter. 13 Muffler.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal;">Umumnya komponen dalam sistem pembuangan terdiri dari :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal;">Catalytic converter untuk
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal;">Knalpot, pipa untuk
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<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peredam_suara_mesin&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Peredam suara mesin (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none;">Peredam suara</span></a><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal;"> atau disebut juga <i>muffler</i>, yang berfungsi
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ujung pipa pembuangan.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal;">Selain itu ada opsional komponen berupa </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbocharger" title="Turbocharger"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none;">Turbocharger</span></a><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal;">, yang menggunakan tenaga/</span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energi" title="Energi"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none;">energi</span></a><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal;"> yang masih
tersisa untuk memutar turbin agar udara yang akan dimasukkan ke ruang bakar
bertekanan sehingga mesin akan menghasilkan tenaga yang lebih besar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>piamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5458366533732204239.post-33058251595123364552012-02-13T05:52:00.001-08:002012-02-13T05:52:14.036-08:00Semi injeksi<link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]>
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kupu-kupu. Masih ingatkan brader dengan kawasaki ZX-RR 800cc yang ditunggangi
marco melandri, dan juga ZX-RR 990cc yang membawa Garry McCoy menjuarai seri Gp
China beberapa tahun yang lalu. Memang turunnya kawasaki di motoGp tidaklah ada
gebrakan yang berart, malahan terkesan sebagi pelengkap saja. Namun ada satu
yang tidak bisa dilupakan dalam ZX-RR 990cc, yaitu sistem semi injeksi yang
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menghalangi debit udara yang masuk. Beda dengan sistem injeksi normal yang
memakai katup kupu-kupu, saat bukaan penuh akan terjadi turbolensi didepan
katup itu sendiri sehingga mengganggu aliran udara yang masuk. Sedangkan
keunggulan injeksi semua orang sudah pada tau, jadi tidak perlulah diulas.
untuk lebih jelasnya mengenai sistem FCR-i ini bisa dilihat pada hasil Jepretan
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<br /></div>piamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5458366533732204239.post-78848068222271525542012-02-13T05:13:00.001-08:002012-02-13T05:13:21.109-08:00diesel<link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]>
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</v:imagedata><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Fungsi utama
gardan adalah membedakan putaran roda kiri dan kanan pada saat mobil sedang
membelok.Hal itu dimaksudkan agar mobil dapat membelok dengan baik tanpa
membuat kedua ban menjadi slip atau tergelincir. Untuk mempelajari cara kerja
gardan berikut ini , sebaiknya Anda baca terlebih dahulu postingan saya tentang
</span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://pipio81.blogspot.com/2010/07/mengenal-differential-atau-gardan.html"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">mengenal gardan</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> . Adapun cara kerja gardan adalah
sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></v:fill></v:shape></v:path></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:formulas></v:stroke></v:shapetype></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada
saat mobil berjalan lurus : </span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada saat mobil
berjalan lurus keadaan kedua ban roda kiri dan kanan sama - sama dalam
kecepatan putaran yang sama.Dan juga beban yang ditanggung roda kiri dan roda
kanan adalah sama. Sehingga urutan perpindahan putaran dari as kopel akan
diteruskan untuk memutar drive pinion . Drive pinion akan memutar ring gear ,
dan ring gear bersama - sama dengan differential case akan berputar. Dengan
berputarnya differential case , maka pinion gear akan terbawa berputar bersama
dengan differential case karena antara differential case dan pinion gear
dihubungkan dengan pinion shaft. Karena beban antara roda kiri dan roda kanan
adalah sama saat jalan lurus , maka pinion gear akan membawa side gear kanan
dan side gear kiri untuk berputar dalam satu kesatuan. Jadi dalam keadaan jalan
lurus sebenarnya pinion gear tidak berputar , pinion gear hanaya membawa side
gear untuk berputar bersama - sama dengan differential case dalam kecepatan
putaran yang sama. Bila differential case berputar satu kali , maka side gear juga
berputar satu kali juga , demikian seterusnya dalam keadaan lurus. Putaran side
gear ini kemudian akan diteruskan untuk menggerakkan as roda dan kemudian
menggerakkan roda.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">saat</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">kendaraan</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">membelok: </span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada saat mobil sedang
membelok beban yang ditanggung pada roda bagian dalam adalah lebih besar
daripada beban yang ditanggung roda bagian luar . Misalkan sebuah mobil sedang
belok ke kiri, maka beban pada roda kiri akan lebih besar daripada beban roda kanan.
Dengan demikian urutan perpindahan tenaganya adalah sebagai berikut ; P:utaran
dari as kopel akan diteruskan untuk memutar drive pinion . Drive pinion akan
memutar ring gear . Dengan berputarnya ring gear maka differential case
akan terbawa juga untuk berputar. Karena beban roda kiri lebih besar dari roda
kanan saat belok ke kiri , maka side gear sebelah kiri akan memberi perlawanan
terhadap pinion gear untuk tidak berputar . Gaya perlawanan dari side gear kiri
ini akan membuat pinion gear menjadi berputar mengitari side gear kiri. Dengan
berputarnya pininon gear , maka side gear kanan akan diputar oleh pinion gear.
Sehingga side gear kanan akan berputar lebih cepat dari side gear kiri.
Gerakan side gear ini akan diteruskan ke as roda kemudian ke roda. Untuk roda
kanan akan berputar lebih cepat daripada roda kiri karena side gear kanan
berputar lebih cepat.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penggerak Sudut</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Bagian – bagian poros penggerak
aksel</span></strong><strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://xlusi.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/pemindah-tenaga161.png"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="http://xlusi.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/pemindah-tenaga161-150x150.png" href="http://xlusi.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/pemindah-tenaga161.png" id="Picture_x0020_52" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1064" style="height: 204.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 204.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">1.
Rumah Penggerak Aksel<br />
2. Gigi Pinion<br />
3. Gigi Korona<br />
4. Gigi Kerucut Samping/Matahari<br />
5. Rumah Differensial<br />
6. Poros Gigi Kerucut Antara<br />
7. Gigi Kerucut Antara/Planet<br />
8. Mounting Rumah Penggerak aksel<br />
9. Tutup Debu<br />
10. Poros Aksel<br />
11. Penghubung Bola/Penghubung CV<br />
12. Bantalan Rumah Diferensial<br />
13. Bantalan Poros Pinion<br />
14. Sil Oli</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">2. Penggunaan :</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kendaraan dengan motor
memanjang, untuk meneruskan putaran ke roda-roda diperlukan penggerak sudut.
Karena arah putaran motor berbeda dengan arah putaran roda – roda<br />
<strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">3. Fungsi :</span></strong></span><strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
• Merubah arah putaran dari arah putaran mesin ke kanan ( a ) menjadi arah
putaran maju ( b ) ke roda – roda<br />
</span><strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">3</span></strong><strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">. Jenis Penggerak Sudut</span></strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pada saat sekarang
penggerak aksel hanya menggunakan penggerak sudut roda korona. Tetapi pada
sistem lama, misalnya merek <i>PEUGEOT</i>
menggunakan penggerak roda cacing.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Perbandingan
gigi pada : </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">•
Sedan station antara 3,5 : 1 s/d 4,5 : 1<br />
• Truk antara 5 : 1 s/d 12 : 1<br />
<b>Jenis biasa :</b><br />
Sumbu poros pinion segaris dengan aksis roda korona Konstruksi ini hanya
digunakan pada truk</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
<b>Kerugian :</b><br />
• Suara tidak halus<br />
• Gaya pada gigi besar ( Konstruksi Berat )</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
<b>Jenis biasa :</b></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sumbu poros pinion segaris dengan aksis roda
korona Konstruksi ini hanya digunakan pada truk<br />
Kerugian :</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">•Suara
tidak halus<br />
• Gaya pada gigi besar ( Konstruksi Berat )</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Jenis Hypoid</span></b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sumbu poros pinion
tidak segaris dengan aksis roda korona</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Konstruksi
ini : Digunakan pada sedan,station dan truk</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Keuntungan :</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">• Suara halus</span><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">• Permukaan gigi yang memindahkan gaya lebih besar</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">• Poros penggerak ( Gardan ) lebih rendah</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kerugian :</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">• Perlu oli khusus GL 4 atau GL 5</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">• Gesekan antara gigi lebih besar</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">5. Bentuk Gigi</span></strong><strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Dari bentuk giginya, roda korona ada 2 macam</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">• Klingenberg</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">• Gleason</span><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Klingenberg</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
• Tebal puncak gigi bagian dalam dan bagian luar sama (A=B)<br />
• Disebut gigi spiral karena bentuk gigi sebagian dari busur spiral<br />
• Kebanyakan digunakan pada mobil Eropa dan Jepang</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://xlusi.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/pemindah-tenaga21.png"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="http://xlusi.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/pemindah-tenaga21-146x300.png" href="http://xlusi.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/pemindah-tenaga21.png" id="Picture_x0020_57" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1061" style="height: 212.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 123.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Gleason<br />
• Tebal puncak gigi bagian dalam dan bagian luar tidak sama (a?b)<br />
• Disebut gigi lingkar karena bentuk – bentuk gigi sebagian dari busur
lingkaran<br />
• Kebanyakan digunakan pada mobil Amerika<br />
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<strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">6. Penyetelan
Penggerak Aksel</span></strong><strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">1. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Tinggi pinion<br />
Untuk mendapatkan posisi gigi pinion yang tepat terhadap gigi roda korona<br />
2. Pre – load pinion<br />
Agar keausan bantalan tidak menyebabkan kebebasan bantalan<br />
3. Celah bebas gigi roda korona ( Back Lash )<br />
Roda korona dapat berputar dengan baik/halus dan tidak menimbulkan suara
persentuhan gigi atau suara dengung<br />
4. Pre – load bantalan rumah diferensial ( Keseluruhan )<br />
Agar keausan bantalan tidak menimbulkan kebebasan bantalan / gerak aksial roda
korona<br />
5. Memeriksa Persinggungan gigi<br />
Untuk menempatkan posisi permukaan kontak gigi pinion dan roda korona benar (
di tengah – tengah ) sehinggga suara halus dan keausan merata</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">7. Bentuk Rumah Aksel ( Penggerak
Aksel )</span></strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
Dari bentuk rumah penggerak aksel dapat dibedakan tiga macam :<br />
• Aksel Banjo<br />
• Aksel Spicer<br />
• Aksel Terompet<br />
<strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">7.1. Aksel Banjo</span></strong></span><strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Rumah
bantalan lebih kuat menahan gaya ke samping / aksial roda korona kurang kuat,
biasa digunakan pada kendaraan sedan, Station dan Jep</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">7.2.
Aksel Spicer</span></strong><strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Rumah
bantalan lebih kuat menahan gaya ke samping / aksial roda korona jenis ini
sering digunakan pada jeep dan truk<br />
<strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">7.4. Aksel Terompet</span></strong></span><strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Rumah
bantalan merupakan satu kesatuan yang kokoh dengan rumah aksel, jenis ini
paling kuat menahan gaya ke samping / aksial roda korona biasanya digunakan
pada jenis kendaraaan berat<br />
Jarang lagi digunakan pada kendaraan, karena :<br />
• Konstruksi rumit<br />
• Penyetelan sulit<br />
• Harga mahal</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">J. Sistem Transmisi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Transmisi Manual<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">Transmisi
manual</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"> adalah
sistem transmisi </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Otomotif"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">otomotif</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"> yang memerlukan </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Pengemudi"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">pengemudi</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"> sendiri untuk menekan/menarik seperti
pada </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Sepeda_motor"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">sepeda motor</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"> atau
menginjak </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Kopling"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">kopling</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">seperti pada </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Mobil"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">mobil</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"> dan menukar gigi percepatan
secara manual. Gigi percepatan dirangkai didalam kotak gigi/gerbox untuk
beberapa kecepatan, biasanya berkisar antara 3 gigi percepatan maju sampai
dengan 6 gigi percepatan maju ditambah dengan 1 gigi mundur (R). Gigi percepatan
yang digunakan tergantung kepada </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Kecepatan"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">kecepatan</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"> </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Kendaraan"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">kendaraan</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"> pada kecepatan rendah atau menanjak digunakan
gigi percepatan 1 dan seterusnya kalau kecepatan semakin tinggi, demikian pula
sebaliknya kalau mengurangi kecepatan gigi percepatan diturunkan, pengereman
dapat dibantu dengan penurunan gigi percepatan.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="" name="_href"></a><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">Pandangan atas dan samping transmisi manual yang
ditempatkan dilantai dari </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Ford"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">Ford</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"> dengan 4 kecepatan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">1. Synchromesh</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">Synchromesh
adalah perlengkapan transmisi yang berfungsi untuk menyamakan putaran antar
gigi yang akan di-sambung sehingga perpindahan gigi percepatan dapat dilakukan
secara mulus. Cara kerjanya saat handel transmisi pada posisi netral, maka
synchromesh berada ditengah tidak berpengaruh atau dipengaruhi oleh kedua roda
gigi yang ada disampingnya.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">2. </span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">Susunan gigi
percepatan</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">Tuas
transmisi pada 5 kecepatan pada </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Mazda"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">Mazda</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"> Protege.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">Susunan/layout gigi
percepatan transmisi manual tergantung kepada ciri yang biasa digunakan disuatu
kawasan, mobil keluaran </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Asia"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">Asia</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"> agak berbeda dengan </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Eropa"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">Eropa</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">, khususnya pada penempatan gigi mundur(R). Penempatan tuas
transmisi yang banyak digunakan adalah di lantai tetapi beberapa mobil modern
menggunakan tuas transmisi di dashboard ataupun mobil lama yang ditempatkan di
setang </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Setir"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">setir</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">Tuas transmisi lantai</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pola</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penjelasan</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Ini adalah susunan 5 gigi
kecepatan yang lazim digunakan pada mobil modern ditambah dengan satu gigi
mundur yang ditandai dengan R. Penempatan gigi mundur (R) krucial karena bisa
salah memasukkan dapat mengganggu jalannya kendaraan, karena kalau dari gigi 5
salah pindah ke mundur bisa berakibat fatal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Susunan ini adalah susunan 5
gigi kecepatan yang lazim digunakan pada </span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://wapedia.mobi/id/Bus"><span style="color: #16297f; font-family: "Courier New";">bus</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> ringan
ditambah dengan satu gigi mundur yang ditandai dengan R. Gigi 1 biasanya
jarang dipakai, dipakai pada saat mendaki di tanjakan terjal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sistem transmisi,
dalam otomotif, adalah sistem yang menjadi penghantar energi dari mesin ke
diferensial dan as. Dengan memutar as, roda dapat berputar dan menggerakkan
mobil.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Transmisi diperlukan
karena mesin pembakaran yang umumnya digunakan dalam mobil merupakan mesin
pembakaran internal yang menghasilkan putaran (rotasi) antara 600 sampai 6000
rpm. Sedangkan, roda berputar pada kecepatan rotasi antara 0 sampai 2500 rpm.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sekarang
ini, terdapat dua sistem transmisi yang umum, yaitu transmisi manual dan
transmisi otomatis. Terdapat juga sistem-sistem transmisi yang merupakan
gabungan antara kedua sistem tersebut, namun ini merupakan perkembangan
terakhir yang baru dapat ditemukan pada mobil-mobil berteknologi tinggi dan
merek-merek tertentu saja.</span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Transmisi
manual merupakan salah satu jenis transmisi yang banyak dipergunakan dengan
alasan perawatan yang lebih mudah. Biasanya pada transimi manual terdiri dari 3
sampai dengan 7 speed.</span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://gudangteknikstemzago.blogspot.com/2009/11/sistem-kerja-transmisi-otomatis.html"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Transmisi otomatis</span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Transmisi otomatis adalah transmisi yang
melakukan perpindahan gigi percepatan secara otomatis. Untuk mengubah tingkat
kecepatan pada sistem transmisi otomatis ini digunakan mekanisme gesek dan
tekanan minyak transmisi otomatis. Pada transmisi otomatis roda gigi planetari
berfungsi untuk mengubah tingkat kecepatan dan torsi seperti halnya pada roda
gigi pada transmisi manual.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kecendenderungan masyarakat untuk menggunakan
transmisi otomatis semakin meningkat dalam beberapa tahun belakangan ini,
khususnya untuk mobil-mobil mewah, bahkan type-type tertentu sudah seluruhnya
menggunakan transmisi otomatis. Kenderungan yang sama terjadi juga pada sepeda
motor seperti Yamaha Mio, Honda Vario.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Transmisi otomatis terdiri dari 3
bagian utama</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"> :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">1.torque converter<br />
2.planetary gear unit<br />
3.hydraulic control unit</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Transmisi otomatis
pada kendaraan tipe FR dan tipe FF bentuk luarnya tidak sama tetapi pada
dasarnya mempunyai fungsi yang sama.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEACQSKCKHnIhfZ0maynhcwNCFoRL8liow4hZonCGdwCZ7kLINwVXmPa5d4cTdGnvs9Wt6Ha07W9GhpcNPmwlSP90s8MwY9HRTjZDqzYhrYVL2smrfwZi9oVU2pxqq9tVwsWqwBgl-u8w/s1600-h/automatic_transmission.jpg"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEACQSKCKHnIhfZ0maynhcwNCFoRL8liow4hZonCGdwCZ7kLINwVXmPa5d4cTdGnvs9Wt6Ha07W9GhpcNPmwlSP90s8MwY9HRTjZDqzYhrYVL2smrfwZi9oVU2pxqq9tVwsWqwBgl-u8w/s320/automatic_transmission.jpg" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEACQSKCKHnIhfZ0maynhcwNCFoRL8liow4hZonCGdwCZ7kLINwVXmPa5d4cTdGnvs9Wt6Ha07W9GhpcNPmwlSP90s8MwY9HRTjZDqzYhrYVL2smrfwZi9oVU2pxqq9tVwsWqwBgl-u8w/s1600-h/automatic_transmission.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371184076723927618" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1055" style="height: 136.5pt; visibility: visible; width: 240pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="automatic_transmission" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image012.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Gambar.Transmisi
otomatis pada kendaraan tipe FR<br />
</span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6pUTuSF8qFj1g0kkg6PfQbwsDV-HYqj2EFWZw7qzS-iS8VG9T9tV1YsE4eacCsKGecEBomLkilYJyvPCxJR-lCdIo7vKacGypKpPZPczZB_l_zhGguYHXQgRusT8PvDFQfkmpqt61OdY/s1600-h/Trans_FrontDriveTypical.gif"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6pUTuSF8qFj1g0kkg6PfQbwsDV-HYqj2EFWZw7qzS-iS8VG9T9tV1YsE4eacCsKGecEBomLkilYJyvPCxJR-lCdIo7vKacGypKpPZPczZB_l_zhGguYHXQgRusT8PvDFQfkmpqt61OdY/s320/Trans_FrontDriveTypical.gif" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6pUTuSF8qFj1g0kkg6PfQbwsDV-HYqj2EFWZw7qzS-iS8VG9T9tV1YsE4eacCsKGecEBomLkilYJyvPCxJR-lCdIo7vKacGypKpPZPczZB_l_zhGguYHXQgRusT8PvDFQfkmpqt61OdY/s1600-h/Trans_FrontDriveTypical.gif" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371186045312233218" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1054" style="height: 192pt; visibility: visible; width: 240pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="Trans_FrontDriveTypical" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image013.png">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Gambar.Transmisi
otomatis pada kendaraan tipe FF</span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
</span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">1. Torque Converter<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Torque
converter berfungsi sebagai kopling otomatis.disamping itu juga berfungsi untuk
memperbesar moment mesin.seperti pada gambar dibawah.torque converter terdiri
dari pump impeller,turbine runner dan stator.stator terletak diantara impeller
dan turbine.torque converter diisi dengan ATF (Automatic tranmision fluid)dan
momen mesin dipindahkan dengan adanya aliran fluida.</span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Perpindahan Momen<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">mesin(crankshaft)<i>menuju
ke</i> pompa impeller <i>menuju ke</i> turbine runner <i>menuju ke </i>transmission</span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
</span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgu6uLv23MXg_2KX4X25zVWG8T47OcN4T29Cr8jEOInB-TqUL9cug81Pqqhsn8kr-xt9CbhWt_QxLAsI9qdDuIxkmXIs_dEUabDiEc7qrKSNGq9_yG4XU-IS3bAJQEu50PL5Qj1eMcSA40/s1600-h/torque+converter+cutaway.jpg"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgu6uLv23MXg_2KX4X25zVWG8T47OcN4T29Cr8jEOInB-TqUL9cug81Pqqhsn8kr-xt9CbhWt_QxLAsI9qdDuIxkmXIs_dEUabDiEc7qrKSNGq9_yG4XU-IS3bAJQEu50PL5Qj1eMcSA40/s320/torque+converter+cutaway.jpg" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgu6uLv23MXg_2KX4X25zVWG8T47OcN4T29Cr8jEOInB-TqUL9cug81Pqqhsn8kr-xt9CbhWt_QxLAsI9qdDuIxkmXIs_dEUabDiEc7qrKSNGq9_yG4XU-IS3bAJQEu50PL5Qj1eMcSA40/s1600-h/torque+converter+cutaway.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371182088509686786" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1053" style="height: 180pt; visibility: visible; width: 240pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="torque+converter+cutaway" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image014.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
</span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNtm_nRqx7in3ePKq-DE3jDk2MJ7xTfhxid68bytf1_5lzEtbyvediXaNx6ruTw_rXruiIgwpekDe0OJwB2PAP1auIzndi9AW7TFaURlUHSqBbVkZmOlA2_OiRCd1tq2EBnVemxUHlO_c/s1600-h/fig19.gif"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNtm_nRqx7in3ePKq-DE3jDk2MJ7xTfhxid68bytf1_5lzEtbyvediXaNx6ruTw_rXruiIgwpekDe0OJwB2PAP1auIzndi9AW7TFaURlUHSqBbVkZmOlA2_OiRCd1tq2EBnVemxUHlO_c/s320/fig19.gif" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNtm_nRqx7in3ePKq-DE3jDk2MJ7xTfhxid68bytf1_5lzEtbyvediXaNx6ruTw_rXruiIgwpekDe0OJwB2PAP1auIzndi9AW7TFaURlUHSqBbVkZmOlA2_OiRCd1tq2EBnVemxUHlO_c/s1600-h/fig19.gif" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371182351364384178" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1052" style="height: 152.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 240pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="fig19" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image015.png">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Gambar.TORQUE
CONVERTER</span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
</span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">2. Roda Gigi Planitari<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Roda
gigi planetary(planetary gear) menerima tenaga gerak dari turbine runner di
dalam torque converter dan berfungsi sebagai pembantu transmisi seperti
diperlihatkan pada gambar di bawah,roda gigi planetary terdiri dari tiga roda
gigi(ring gear,pinion gear dan sun gear)dan planetary carrier.roda roda gigi
input,out put dan stasionary dibuat untuk memindahkan dan mengembalikan momen
mesin.</span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">umumnya
dua roda gigi planetary digunakan untuk tipe kendaraan dengan transmisi
otomatis tiga kecepatan dan tiga pasang gigi planetary digunakan pada tipe
kendaraan otomatis dengan empat kecepatan.</span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0ObC4IpNWealu6WgsCZFOJ_UeZtSOCBAgpXDb6PUmriTJf61UH1z6ecvyLq43Sh0RfBpDqV9r-R_sNcnKkecUVX3m7gyy_N3_JiUiOCBmFEN4czx4yUVFBRDiJ0IDb2YLc6JmZmZFTMU/s1600-h/fig10.jpg"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0ObC4IpNWealu6WgsCZFOJ_UeZtSOCBAgpXDb6PUmriTJf61UH1z6ecvyLq43Sh0RfBpDqV9r-R_sNcnKkecUVX3m7gyy_N3_JiUiOCBmFEN4czx4yUVFBRDiJ0IDb2YLc6JmZmZFTMU/s320/fig10.jpg" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0ObC4IpNWealu6WgsCZFOJ_UeZtSOCBAgpXDb6PUmriTJf61UH1z6ecvyLq43Sh0RfBpDqV9r-R_sNcnKkecUVX3m7gyy_N3_JiUiOCBmFEN4czx4yUVFBRDiJ0IDb2YLc6JmZmZFTMU/s1600-h/fig10.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371182737200127106" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1051" style="height: 180pt; visibility: visible; width: 240pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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<v:imagedata o:title="fig10" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image016.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
<span class="fullpost">Gambar.RODA GIGI PLANETARY</span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 18pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sistem
Pengontrolan Hidraulis<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sistem
pengontrol hidraulis (hydraulic control system)direncanakan untuk memindahkan
secara otomatis dan menghubungkan roda-roda gigi input,output dan stationary
dari roda gigi planetary planetary carrier sesuai dengan kondisi jalannya
kendaraan(kecepatan kendaraan,membukanya throttle,beban dan lain-lain</span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeva-SDu-GMKqdqoxdK_ryEQy0MXuxxACwOjwxmyDqYFfmuST4inLC0T-AM2nkLKc6i8mSnLx53ndSkC_5-L7ys_OsFy1CrC3rmwucKEfO8r9JBWeZXbA0-88i96IqVmxI6U6UwejZqfE/s1600-h/fig15.gif"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeva-SDu-GMKqdqoxdK_ryEQy0MXuxxACwOjwxmyDqYFfmuST4inLC0T-AM2nkLKc6i8mSnLx53ndSkC_5-L7ys_OsFy1CrC3rmwucKEfO8r9JBWeZXbA0-88i96IqVmxI6U6UwejZqfE/s320/fig15.gif" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeva-SDu-GMKqdqoxdK_ryEQy0MXuxxACwOjwxmyDqYFfmuST4inLC0T-AM2nkLKc6i8mSnLx53ndSkC_5-L7ys_OsFy1CrC3rmwucKEfO8r9JBWeZXbA0-88i96IqVmxI6U6UwejZqfE/s1600-h/fig15.gif" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371183093574799890" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1050" style="height: 168.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 240pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="fig15" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image017.png">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><br />
<span class="fullpost">Gambar.SISTEM PENGONTROL HIDRolik</span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">K. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Sistem Suspensi Kendaraan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">1. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Fungsi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Agar
ban selalu menyentuh permukaan jalan. (Untuk menjamin adanya kontrol arah
kendaraan, untuk memungkinkan dilakukannya pengereman).Agar kendaraan tetap
berjalan mulus bagaimanapun kondisi permukaan jalan sehingga nyaman bagi
penumpang atau beban.Untuk memindahkan daya pengemudian dan pengereman dari
roda ke chasis atau bodi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tipe-tipe Sistem Suspensi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ada
berbagai macam sistem suspensi yang digunakan, tetapi masing-masing termasuk
salah satu dari tipe dasar berikut ini:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Suspensi independen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Suspensi poros kaku atau solid</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Suspensi
Independen<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Sebatang
poros depan yang dipasang pada bodi dengan menggunakan pegas daun digantikan
dengan suspensi independen untuk tiap roda depan pada mobil. Hal tersebut
menghasilkan pengemudian yang lebih baik serta meningkatkan kualitas
pengendaraan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pada
sistem suspensi independen, tiap roda dihubungkan pada bodi oleh penghubung dan
pegasnya sendiri, sehingga gerakan tiap roda tidak berpengaruh terhadap gerakan
roda lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Suspensi
independen membantu menjaga level pengendaraan mobil pada jalanan yang
bergelombang.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Walaupun
terdapat bermacam-macam sistem suspensi, secara garis besar dapat dibagi
menjadi suspensi depan dan belakang dan suspensi independen dan non independen.
(Bagian paling umum dari semua sistem suspensi kendaraan tanpa memandang
jenisnya adalah ban pneumatis).</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Catatan :<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pada
beberapa kendaraan suspensi ini adalah satu-satunya yang digunakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tipe-tipe Pegas<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Fungsi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas
merupakan alat yang fleksibel yang menopang bodi kendaraan dan beban yang
memungkinkan roda dan sistem suspensi mengikuti kontur/perbedaan ketinggian
jalan tanpa terjadi gerakan pada bodi kendaraan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas
daun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas
koil<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Batang
torsi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Karet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Udara<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Hidrolastik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pneumatis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Catatan:<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Beberapa
jenis di antaranya dapat digabungkan untuk membentuk sistem suspensi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas Koil<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas
koil adalah sebatang pegas dari baja dililit membentuk koil. Jika pegas baja
yang digunakan mempunyai diameter sama pada sepanjang bagian penampangnya dan
jarak antar lilitan sama besar, maka pegas akan mempunyai tingkat defleksi yang
konstan. Jika diameternya mengecil pada bagian tepi atau jika terdapat<span> </span>beberapa koil yang dililit lebih rapat maka
koil akan mempunyai tingkat redaman variabel. Pada saat bekerja pegas koil akan
terpuntir sepanjang bentangan saat beban diperbesar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Batang Torsi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Batang
torsi dapat berupa batang tunggal pegas baja atau sejumlah lembaran pegas baja
yang disatukan. Pada saat bekerja batang torsi terpuntir sepanjang bentangan
saat dibebani. Pegas ini biasanya merupakan pegas dengan defleksi konstan
tetapi jika diameternya meruncing maka defleksinya variabel. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas Karet<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Karet
merupakan bagian kebanyakan dari sistem suspensi pada bentuk bos karet yang
digunakan pada penyangga (shackle), pivot dan sambungan (mounting). Pada
tempat-tempat tersebut karet mengurangi transmisi getaran dan menimbulkan
kelenturan dari gerakan tanpa diperlukan adanya ruang celah atau pelumasan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas Daun<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas ini
dijelaskan dalam buku May and Crouse edisi ke lima, kecuali poin-poin berikut</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Rebound Clip<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>clip menahan ujung daun pada daun yang lebih
panjang di atasnya. Hal ini akan mengakibatkan timbulnya gesekan yang akan
mengurangi pantulan. Bisa dipergunakan ganjal (spacer) dari plastik atau logam
untuk membatasi besarnya gesekan yang terjadi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tingkat Defleksi Pegas<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tingkat defleksi pegas adalah ukuran besarnya defleksi pegas
yang terjadi akibat suatu beban. Satuannya dalam Newton per milimeter (N/mm).
Pada beberapa pegas terdapat tingkat defleksi konstan yang artinya jika beban
makin besar maka defleksi akan makin besar dengan perbandingan lurus. Misalnya
jika beban dilipatkan dua kali (gaya ke bawah dalam satuan Newton) maka
defleksi pada pegas juga akan meningkat sebesar dua kali. Tingkat defleksi
variabel berarti jika beban diperbesar defleksi yang terjadi tidak meningkat
secara sebanding.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Karet dan
sistem gas merupakan jenis variabel, sedangkan pegas daun, pegas koil dan
batang torsi tergantung pada konstruksi yang digunakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Lokasi Poros Balok<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Poros
balok (beam axle) ditahan pada posisinya oleh pegas. Walaupun pegas mudah
bergerak agar poros dapat bergerak melewati benjolan jalan, pegas tetap
memuntir untuk menahan poros di posisinya pada garis pusat kendaraan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Aksi Pengemudian dan Pengereman<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Karena
poros balok digunakan dengan kemudi roda belakang, chasis terdorong ke depan
sehingga poros depan tertarik oleh <span style="color: black;">penyangga (fixed
shackle) dan bagian depan pegas daun. Jika dilakukan pengereman maka roda depan
berkurang kecepatannya dan gaya pengereman diberikan pada poros, bagian depan
pegas, fixed shackle dan juga chasis.</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Suspensi Hidro-Elastis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(Cairan
dan karet)Karet juga dapat dipergnakan sebagai pegas secara independen atau
digabungkan dengan cairan untuk memindahkan pergerakan yang terjadi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Catatan:<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Cairan
tidak dapat digunakan sebagai pegas secara independen karena tidak dapat
ditekan pada suhu yang dapat diterapkan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Suspensi
hidro-elastis menggunakan cairan untuk memindahkan pergerakan roda pada pegas
karet di tiap <span style="color: black;">unit displacer pada</span> kendaraan.Karena
tiap unit displacer pada tiap sisi mempunyai hubungan antara bagian depan dan
belakang, sebuah benjolan pada salah satu roda akan mengakibatkan satu sisi
kendaraan akan terangkat bukan hanya satu ujung saja. Hal ini akan mengurangi
“pitch” yaitu gerakan ke depan dan ke belakang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Unit
Hidrolastis</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">uspensi Udara<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Karena
udara mempunyai sifat dapat ditekan maka udara dapat digunakan sebagai pegas.
Udara digunakan sebagai bagian suspensi dari semua kendaraan otomotif pada ban
dan bisa juga digunakan untuk menjalankan fungsi pegas. Udara yang ditekan
digunakan untuk suspensi pada beberapa bus, ketinggian kendaraan dan
pengendaraan dapat dikontrol secara otomatis terhadap berbagai perubahan beban
penumpang. Artinya kendaraan akan tetap memiliki ketinggian yang sama dan
pengendaraan terjadi dengan mulus baik dalam kondisi penumpang yang penuh atau
kosong.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pneumatis<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pada
kendaraan yang menggunakan sistem suspensi gas, gas yang digunakan adalah
nitrogen yang diberi tekanan tertentu. Untuk memindahkan pergerakan suspensi
pada gas digunakan minyak, sedang pada penerapan ini minyak dipompa menuju atau
keluar dari unit suspensi untuk mengontrol ketinggian kendaraan.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Contoh
Suspensi Hidro-Pneumatis<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mengapa
Diperlukan Shock Absorber?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas
yang digunakan sendirian kurang memuaskan bagi sistem suspensi kendaraan. Untuk
menyerap kejutan jalan pegas harus fleksibel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Jika pegas
terlalu fleksibel maka pegas akan terus mampat dan memantul sehingga kendaraan
memantul ke atas dan ke bawah secara berlebihan.Gerak memantul mengurangi
kualitas pengendaraan dan juga menyulitkan pengendalian.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Jika pegas
diperkeras maka akan mengakibatkan pengendaraan yang keras.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dengan menggunakan pegas yang
relatif fleksibel dengan peredam kejut akan dihasilkan pengendaraan yang mulus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Oleh
karena itu peredam kejut harus memiliki kemampuan meredam osilasi atau pantulan
pegas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peredam
kejut mempunyai peranan yang penting dalam menghasilkan kenyamanan,
pengendalian yang lebih mudah serta pengereman yang aman.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Tipe-tipe Shock Absorber<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
absorber kendaraan biasanya termasuk dalam salah satu tipe-tipe berikut ini :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Light
Duty, Heavy Duty, Gas Filled, Load Adjustable, Ride Adjustable, Load Levelling
(air shockers), McPherson Strut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Light Duty<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
absorber light duty biasanya dipasang sebagai standar pada kebanyakan
kendaraan. Shock absorber ini juga dapat dipasang sebagai pengganti pada
kendaraan-kendaraan populer setelah pemasaran. Kendaraan-kendaraan tersebut
dikendarai oleh pengendara biasa dan jarang dikendarai dengan kondisi beban
penuh.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Heavy Duty<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
absorber heavy duty dipasang sebagai ekstra dan bersifat opsional pada
kendaraan yang sedang diproduksi atau sebagai ekstra setelah dilakukan
pemasaran bagi kendaraan-kendaraan model standar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
absorber ini juga dipasang oleh beberapa pabrik sebagai item standar bagi
produksi kendaraan model mewah atau produksi khusus.endaraan-kendaraan tersebut
ditujukan bukan untuk penggunaan normal kendaraan model standar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
absorber heavy duty mempunyai diameter yang lebih besar daripada model light
duty dan mampu menghasilkan aksi peredaman yang lebih kuat dalam kondisi
pengendaraan ekstrem karena memiliki piston dan kapasitas cairan yang lebih
besar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Gas Filled<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
absorber yang menggunakan udara merupakan item standar pada kendaraan dengan
performa tinggi. Shock absorber yang berisi udara serupa dengan shock absorber
heavy duty selain peredam jenis ini memiliki ruang reservoir bertekanan yang
berisi gas nitrogen.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Minyak pada
Shock absorber jenis ini memiliki tekanan sehingga membantu menjaga agar tidak
terbentuk gelembung udara pada minyak.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Gelembung
udara dapat terjadi pada minyak Shock absorber yang tidak bertekanan/non
pressurised. Gelembung terjadi jika shock absorber tersebut mengalami aksi
peredaman terus menerus, seperti pada pengendaraan dengan kecepatan tinggi
sepanjang jalan yang tidak rata.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Load Adjustable<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
absorber yang dapat menyesuaikan beban bisanya digunakan pada bagian belakang
sepeda motor.Biasanya Shock absorber ini memiliki kumparan pegas yang
mengelilingi bagian luar shock absorber. Penyetelan dilakukan melalui sekrup
sleeve bagian bawah atau posisi gigi/notch yang lebih rendah.Kemampuan memikul
beban dinaikkan atau diturunkan dari pengaturan tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">McPherson Strut<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Suspensi
McPherson Strut menggunakan shock absorber sebagai penyangga suspensi depan dan
belakang. Bagian atas tiang penyangga (strut) berfungsi sebagai pivot dan
tempat pemasangan bagian atas suspensi depan sedang bagian atas penyangga
merupakan tempat pemasangan suspensi belakang. Bagian bawah tiang penyangga
pada suspensi depan memiliki ball joint pivot serta dihubungkan pada lengan
pengontrol bawah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Selain
itu strut juga menjadi titik pemasangan bagi poros ujung (stub axle) pada
suspensi depan dan belakang. Shock absorber bisa berbentuk strut komplit atau
bisa juga diberupa sekrup yang disisipkan pada bagian atas rakitan strut.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span><v:shape id="_x0000_i1044" style="height: 205.5pt; visibility: visible; width: 174.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock Absorber yang Dapat Diatur<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
absorber jenis ini mempunyai tingkat peredaman yang diatur dengan merubah
setting katup pengontrol.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Biasanya
shock absorber tipe ini digunakan pada suspensi jenis McPherson strut. Peredam
ini digunakan pada kendaraan-kendaraan yang memiliki performa tinggi dan bisa
diatur secara otomatis melalui program komputer dan sensor atau melalui saklar
manual.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Saklar
manual tersebut biasanya diberi tanda HARD RIDE atau SOFT RIDE</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Load
Levelling (air shockers)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
absorber tipe ini digunakan untuk mengkompensasi beban berat. Bagian belakang
dapat dijaga ketinggian normalnya dengan memperbesar atau mengurangi tekanan
udara pada shock absorber.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Hal
tersebut akan menghasilkan stabilitas pada kendaraan serta pengarahan lampu
yang dapat terjaga dalam kondisi beban berat. Shock absorber udara yang dapat
didesain sebagai alat pengkompensasi beban dan bukan digunakan untuk
meningkatkan pengendalian pada kondisi normal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kantung
udara shock absorber harus selalu memiliki tekanan minimum sebesar 140 kPa agar
tidak terjadi kerusakan pada kantung udara.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
Absorber (Peredam Pegas)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas
yang digunakan secara sendirian dalam sistem suspensi tidakmemberikan hasil
yang memuaskan. Pegas harus bersifat fleksibel agar dapat meredam atau menyerap
kejutan jalan, tetapi jika terlalu fleksibel maka akan terus memampat dan
memantul. Hal tersebut disebut osilasi pegas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas
yang terlalu keras akan menghasilkan pengendaraan<span> </span>yang keras (hard ride) karena memindahkan
goncangan jalan pada kendaraan. Pengendaraan yang mulus tanpa terjadi osilasi
pegas yang besar dapat diperoleh melalui penggunaan pegas yang relatif
fleksibel digabungkan dengan shock absorber.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
absorber (peredam pegas) menghentikan pegas dalam berosilasi. Sebuah pegas
tanpa peredam akan mampat dan memantul beberapa kali sebelum akhirnya berhenti.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas Tanpa Redaman<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Waktu
yang diperlukan oleh pegas untuk kembali sesudah defleksi.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_14" o:spid="_x0000_i1041" style="height: 99pt; visibility: visible; width: 297.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="i12-a" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image029.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Besarnya
defleksi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; page-break-after: avoid;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pegas
dengan Redaman<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Jika
dipasang sebuah peredam kejut maka osilasi berkurang.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_15" o:spid="_x0000_i1040" style="height: 111.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 234pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="i12-b" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image030.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Cara Kerja<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dua gerakan
shock absorber adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pemampatan/kompresi
(saat roda melalui benjolan)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 18pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pantulan
(saat roda jatuh pada lubang)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 18pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0cm; page-break-after: avoid;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Langkah
Pemampatan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; page-break-after: avoid;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(roda bergerak ke atas)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Saat roda kendaraan menabrak benjolan yang mengakibatkan bergerak
ke atas ke arah bodi kendaraan, pegas mampat. Pada saat yang sama shock
absorber memendek dan mengakibatkan silinder bawah bergerak ke atas mendorong
piston ke arah dasar silinder. Gerakan ke atas oleh silinder menimbulkan
tekanan pada cairan di bawah piston. Pada saat yang sama gerakan tersebut
menciptakan daerah bertekanan rendah pada silinder di atas piston.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_16" o:spid="_x0000_i1039" style="height: 198.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 99pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="i13" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image031.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0cm; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Cairan yang berada di bawah piston terdesak melalui lubang kecil
pada piston dan mengalir menuju bagian atas silinder. Tidak seluruh cairan dari
ruang bawah bisa masuk ke ruang atas karena sebagian ruang ditempati oleh
batang piston. Jika ruang atas menjadi penuh setiap gerakan ke atas oleh
silinder akan mengakibatkan tekanan cairan yang tinggi di bawah piston yang
dapat membuat katup kompresi bawah (atau katup kaki/katup hisap) menjadi
terbuka. Cairan akan mengalir menuju bagian luar tabung.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Cairan yang mengalir melalui katup
menghasilkan redaman pada pegas dan gerakan roda.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0cm; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="_x0000_i1038" style="height: 161.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 91.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="i14" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image032.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0cm;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Langkah Pemantulan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; page-break-after: avoid;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(roda bergerak ke bawah)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Saat
roda bergerak ke bawah shock absorber memanjang.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Silinder bergerak ke bawah menjauhi piston dan katup
pantulan. Cairan di atas piston tertekan, sedangkan daerah di bawah piston
tekanannya menjadi rendah. Cairan di atas piston terdesak melalui
restriksi/penahan pada katup pantulan menuju ruang bawah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pada
saat yang sama katup kompresi atau katup kaki membuka dan mengalirkan cairan
dari tabung luar menuju ruang bawah.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Gerakan
cairan melalui penahan shock absorber dan gerakan roda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Catatan:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ukuran
penahan pada katup bervariasi antara satu kendaraan dengan lainnya, tergantung
jenis suspensi yang digunakan oleh pabrik.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="_x0000_i1037" style="height: 174pt; visibility: visible; width: 98.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="i15" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image033.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0cm; page-break-after: avoid;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Peredam
Kejut Gas <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock
absorber bekerja secara hidrolis namun tidak diisi minyak sampai penuh. Pada
reservoir terdapat sebuah ruangan yang diperuntukkan bagi udara, ruangan
tersebut berada di atas reservoir minyak. Beberapa shock absorber tidak
menggunakan udara melainkan gas. Shock absorber demikian dikenal sebagai
peredam kejut gas. Gas dimasukkan dalam shock absorber menggunakan tekanan pada
proses pembuatannya. Hal ini memiliki keuntungan mengurangi aerasi. Aerasi
terjadi jika udara bercampur dengan minyak. Hal tersebut dapat mempengaruhi
kerja peredam kejut.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="_x0000_i1036" style="height: 171.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 145.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="i16" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image034.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shock Absorber Udara<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pada shock
absorber udara terdapat silinder udara dan sepatu neoprene mengelilingi peredam
tersebut. Konpartemen ini diisi dengan udara bertekanan untuk meningkatkan
kapasitas kendaraan dalam memikul beban tanpa menimbulkan penurunan ujung
belakang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Pada saat
beban berat diberikan pada sepatu atau kursi belakang pegas akan mampat dan
membuat ujung belakang turun. Hal ini mengakibatkan perubahan karakteristik
pengendalian mobil serta juga menyebabkan lampu depan mendongak ke atas.
Peredam udara dapat mencegah terjadinya hal tersebut dengan cara menaikkan
bagian belakang mobil jika mendapat beban dan menurunkan bagian belakang
menjadi rata jika beban dilepas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%;">
<b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Catatan:<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Udara
bisa diberikan dengan dua cara :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Secara
manual – Dilakukan pada bengkel dengan menggunakan pipa udara.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 54pt; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Secara
otomatis – Pada kendaraan yang dilengkapi level pengendaraan otomatis udara
ditambahkan atau dibuang menggunakan kompresor on board. (Pada kendaraan
tertentu alat ini merupakan perlengkapan standar).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_20" o:spid="_x0000_i1035" style="height: 148.5pt; visibility: visible; width: 273.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="i17-a" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image035.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; page-break-after: avoid; text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_21" o:spid="_x0000_i1034" style="height: 155.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 309.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="i17-b" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image036.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; page-break-after: avoid;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kolom Kemudi yang Dapat
Runtuh/Patah</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Kemudi
ini merupakan faktor keamanan pada sistem kemudi kendaraan untuk memperkecil
kemungkinan terjadinya pengendara yang tertusuk kolom kemudi jika terjadi
kecelakaan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dalam
bekerja menangani bagian kemudi ini perlu berhati-hati agar tidak memberi beban
kejutan atau memukul kolom kemudi atau tabung. Seringkali jika suatu bagian
telah runtuh, baik diakibatkan oleh terjadinya kecelakaan atau kekeliruan
penanganan, maka harus diganti. Pergunakan alat untuk menarik untuk membongkar
steering wheel dan jangan menggunakan palu atau memukul wheel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Catatan :<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Batang
kemudi hingga kolom luar yang dapat runtuh memiliki bentalan pada bagian atas
dan ke arah dasar batang sebagai penopang dan untuk memudahkan memutar.</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: center;">
<span><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_22" o:spid="_x0000_i1033" style="height: 150pt; visibility: visible; width: 196.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="i18" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image037.png">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">L. </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sistem Kemudi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><v:shape alt="http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/steering-parts.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_17" o:spid="_x0000_i1032" style="height: 180pt; visibility: visible; width: 275.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="steering-parts" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image038.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Cara Kerja Sistem Kemudi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Fungsi </span><strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">sistem</span></strong><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> kemudi adalah untuk mengatur arah kendaraan dengan<span> </span>cara membelokkan roda depan. Cara kerjanya
bila <i>steering wheel</i> (roda kemudi) diputar, steering coulomn (batang
kemudi) akan<span> </span>meneruskan tenaga
putarnya ke <i>steering gear</i> (roda gigi<span>
</span>kemudi).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Steering<i> gear</i> memperbesar tenaga
putar ini sehingga dihasilkan momen puntir yang lebih besar untuk diteruskan ke
steering lingkage. Steering lingkage akan meneruskan gerakan steering gear ke
roda-roda depan. Jenis sistem kemudi pada kendaraan menengah sampai besar yang
banyak digunakan adalah model recirculating ball dan pada kendaraan ringan yang
banyak digunakan adalah model rack dan pinion. Agar sistem kemudi sesuai dengan
fungsinya maka harus memenuhi persyaratan seperti berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>a)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kelincahannya baik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>b)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Usaha pengemudian yang baik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>c)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Recovery ( pengembalian ) yang
halus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>d)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pemindahan kejutan dari permukaan
jalan harus seminimal mungkin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify;">
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</v:imagedata><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></v:shape></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Steering wheel</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Steering coloumn</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Steering gear</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pitman arm</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Idle arm</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Tie rod</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Relay rod</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Knuckle ar</span></i><span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<v:shape id="Picture_x0020_12" o:spid="_x0000_s1031" style="height: 162pt; left: 0pt; margin-left: 102.6pt; margin-top: 1.35pt; position: absolute; text-align: left; visibility: visible; width: 236.25pt; z-index: -9;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image040.png">
</v:imagedata><span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></v:shape></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span class="fullpost"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span></span></span><span class="fullpost"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Steering wheel</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Steering coulomn</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Universal joint</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Housing steeringrack</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Booth steer</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 99.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Tie rod<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Konstruksi Sistem Kemudi<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Pada umumnya konstruksi sistem kemudi
terdiri dari tiga bagian utama yaitu :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> </span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">a.</span></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Steering Coulom</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Steering coulomn</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> terdiri dari main shaft yang meneruskan
putaran <i>steering wheel</i> ke steering gear dan <i>coulomn tube</i> yang
mengikat main shaft ke body.Bagian ujung atas dari main shaft dibuat meruncing
dan bergerigi sebagai tempat mengikatkan <i>steering wheel</i> dengan sebuah
mur pengikat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Bagian <i>bawah</i> main shaft dihubungkan
dengan steering gear menggunakan <i>flexibel joint</i> atau <i>universal joint</i>
yang berfungsi untuk menahan dan memperkecil kejutan dari steering gear ke
steering wheel yang diakibatkan oleh keadaan jalan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Steering coulomn harus dapat menyerap gaya
dorong dari pengemudi dan<span> </span>dipasangkan
pada body melalui bracket coulomn tipe breakaway sehingga dapat bergeser turun
pada saat terjadinya tabrakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Pada kendaraan tertentu,steering coulomn
dilengkapi dengan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Steering lock</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> yang berfungsi untuk mengunci
main shaft.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Tilt steering</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> yang berfungsi untuk memungkinkan
pengemudi menyetel posisi <i>vertikal steering wheel</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 63.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span>3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Telescopic<i> steering</i> yang
berfungsi untuk mengatur panjang main shaft,agar diperoleh posisi yang sesuai.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">b.</span></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Steering Gear</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 42.55pt; text-align: justify;">
<i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Steering Gear</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">berfungsi<span> untuk mengarahkan roda depan dan dalam waktu yang bersamaan juga
berfungsi sebagai gigi reduksi untuk meningkatkan momen agar kemudi menjadi
ringan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<h1 style="line-height: 200%;">
<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Power Stering<o:p></o:p></span></h1>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Power steering</span></i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"> merupakan salah satu pengembangan dari
sistem kemudi yang fungsinya untuk mengurangi daya pengemudian, sehingga dapat
memperingan operasi steering wheel. Daya pengemudian (steering effort) umumnya
20 N sampai 39 N, beberapa sistem memasukan pertimbangan khusus untuk
mengurangi steering effort selama pengoperasian kecepatan rendah dan
meningkatkan steering effort selama pengoperasian kecepatan tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Penggunaan power
steering memberikan beberapa <i>keuntungan</i> seperti :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0cm;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">mengurangi
steering effort<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Kestabilan
yang sangat tinggi selama pengemudian<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Mengurangi
guncangan dari ketidak rataan permukaan jalan yang di salurkan pada
steering wheel.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Power steering mempunyai dua tipe peralatan</span></i><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"> yaitu tipe hidraulis yang menggunakan tenaga
mesin, dan yang lainnya menggunakan motor listrik atau biasa di sebut Electric
Power Steering (EPS). Pada power steering yang menggunakan tenaga mesin ,
tenaga mesin di pakai untuk menggerakkan pompa, sedangkan pada jenis yang
menggunakan motor listrik, pompa digerakkan oleh motor listrik. Keduanya sama –
sama bertujuan untuk membangkitkan tekanan hidraulis yang dipakai untuk
menggerakkan torak pada power cylinder dan memberikkan tambahan tenaga pada
pinion dan rack.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Syarat sebuah<i>
power steering </i></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">harus sesuai
dengan gaya pengemudian dimana pada saat kecepatan rendah usaha pengemudian
harus lebih rendah (ringan) dan semakin tinggi kecepatan kendaraan, maka usaha
yang diperlukan untuk pengemudian harus semakin kecil. Untuk memperoleh gaya
kemudi yang sesuai, beberapa mobil memiliki power steering dengan peralatan
khusus yang dipasang pada pompa (vane pump) atau gear housing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Power steering yang menggunakan sensor yang
terpasang pada gear housing merupakan tipe power steering dengan sensor
kecepatan kendaraan, dimana kecepatan kendaraan dideteksi dengan speed sensor
dan tekanan fluida yang bekerja pada pompa akan berubah ubah berdasarkan sensor
kecepatan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 18pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Power steering yang menggunakan sensor yang
terpasang pada vane pump merupakan tipe pwer steering dengan sensor putaran
mesin (RPM). Pada tipe pengindera rpm mesin, di atas kecepatan tertentu volume
aliran fluida diturunkan sehingga tekanan yang bekerja pada pompa akan
berkurang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Peralatan power steering
hidraulis terdiri dari :<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Vane pump
yang berfungsi untuk membangkitkan tekanan hidraulis dan di gerakkan oleh
mesin atau motor listrik. Pada bagian vane pump terdiri dari pump body,
pump reservoir, flow control valve dan Idle up mechanism</span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">e.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><v:shape alt="http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/steering-pump-diagram.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_18" o:spid="_x0000_i1031" style="height: 185.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 198pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="steering-pump-diagram" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image041.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://liecklongley.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/vane.jpg" title=""vane.jpg" "><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="vane.jpg" href="http://liecklongley.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/vane.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_10" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1030" style="height: 179.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 184.5pt;" title=""vane.jpg"" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="vane" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image042.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><v:shape alt="http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/steering-rotary-valve.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_19" o:spid="_x0000_i1029" style="height: 172.5pt; visibility: visible; width: 271.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:imagedata o:title="steering-rotary-valve" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image043.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="2" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Control
Valve yang ditempatkan pada gear housing dan berfungsi untuk mengatur dan
mengontrol tekanan hidraulis yang akan di salurkan ke power cylinder,
control valve ini di atur oleh main shaft yang digerakkan oleh steering
wheel. Jenis control valve ada tiga jenis yaitu Flapper valve type (untuk
tipe recirculating ball), Rotary valve type dan Spool valve type (untuk
tipe rack n pinion).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Power
cylinder berfungsi untuk mengubah tekanan hidraulis menjadi gerakan
mekanis dengan cara meneruskan tekanan hidraulis dari control valve ke
rack end (steering lingkage).<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://liecklongley.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/steering-power-rack1.jpg" title=""steering-power-rack1.jpg" "><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="steering-power-rack1.jpg" href="http://liecklongley.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/steering-power-rack1.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_11" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1028" style="height: 176.25pt; visibility: visible; width: 295.5pt;" title=""steering-power-rack1.jpg"" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="steering-power-rack1" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image044.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 36pt;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Courier New";">Keunggulan Penggunaan Power
Steering<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://cdn.rachmadrevanz.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/steering.jpg"><span style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="http://cdn.rachmadrevanz.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/steering-300x239.jpg" href="http://cdn.rachmadrevanz.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/steering.jpg" id="Picture_x0020_7" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" style="height: 175.5pt; visibility: visible; width: 296.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="steering-300x239" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image045.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Sama halnya dengan perangkat pengatur suhu
(AC) yang sekarang sudah menjadi perlengkapan standar pada </span><a href="http://rachmadrevanz.com/2011/persiapan-mobil-untuk-melakukan-perjalanan-jauh-mudik.html" title="See also Persiapan Mobil Untuk Melakukan Perjalanan Jauh (Mudik)"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">mobil</span></a><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"> penumpang, demikian pula halnya dengan power steering. Bisa
jadi tuntutan konsumen sudah sedemikian rupa sehingga power steering sudah menjadi
perlengkapan standar pada beberapa jenis mobil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Lebih daripada itu, ada kecenderungan mobil
penumpang yang kecil sekalipun dilengkapi dengan power steering, agar sistem
kemudi dapat digerakkan dengan ringan. Bagian mobil yang satu ini sudah menjadi
perlengkapan yang ditonjolkan sebagai nilai promosi yang lebih unggul dari
produk mobil lainnya. Bukannya tanpa alasan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Dalam berbagai percakapan, keluhan bahwa
kemudi terasa </span><a href="http://rachmadrevanz.com/2011/prosedur-dan-peralatan-berbaikan-pada-mobil.html" title="See also Prosedur dan Peralatan Perbaikan Pada Mobil"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">berat</span></a><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"> saat ini santer terdengar, khususnya pada mobil yang tidak
dilengkapi dengan power steering. Hal ini lebih banyak disebabkan oleh semakin
banyaknya mobil yang mengganti </span><a href="http://rachmadrevanz.com/merawat-ban-agar-awet.html"><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">ban</span></a><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">
yang lebih besar dan lebih lebar. Dengan lebih lebarnya permukaan ban pasti
menyebabkan roda kemudi lebih berat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Dengan demikian, mobil tanpa power steering
sudah dirasakan ketinggalan “mode” sekalipun mobil tersebut termasuk kelas
kecil yang notabene tanpa power steering pun seharusnya masih terasa lebih
ringan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Agaknya perlengkapan-perlengkapan yang dulu
hanya dipasang kalau ada permintaan khusus dari pemilik, sekarang telah menjadi
perlengkapan standar, demikian pula terjadi pada sistem kemudi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Pemasangan Power Steering<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Dari kedua sistem kemudi tersebut, yang
menggunakan cara kotak roda gigi lebih mudah untuk dipasangkan power steering.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<strong><span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Power Steering Kotak Roda Gigi<o:p></o:p></span></strong></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New";">Cara pemasangan model ini lebih mudah, dan
yang penting bagi Anda adalah mencari bengkel yang mempunyai keahlian khusus
memasang power steering.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 200%;">
<a href="" name="1952249366878444471"></a><a href="http://teknikindustri-dadan.blogspot.com/2009/11/kerusakan-pada-power-stering.html"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">kerusakan
pada power stering</span></a><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<span lang="EN-US"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2bSpVQfYsb-bcEqpzDk4KFgqyCE5FHarpqiAR3eCeLtqCymRdintdMZCLI862XAPE0PlIipdNdczrBtNvqCZGmC4jSpKNkMQDX5hgZo-qwibzucIjSP38ghLB7LLo1FzuRtk-Be1MQ84D/s1600/434760-09301902112007@600_series_power_steering_b.jpg"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; font-family: "Courier New"; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2bSpVQfYsb-bcEqpzDk4KFgqyCE5FHarpqiAR3eCeLtqCymRdintdMZCLI862XAPE0PlIipdNdczrBtNvqCZGmC4jSpKNkMQDX5hgZo-qwibzucIjSP38ghLB7LLo1FzuRtk-Be1MQ84D/s320/434760-09301902112007@600_series_power_steering_b.jpg" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2bSpVQfYsb-bcEqpzDk4KFgqyCE5FHarpqiAR3eCeLtqCymRdintdMZCLI862XAPE0PlIipdNdczrBtNvqCZGmC4jSpKNkMQDX5hgZo-qwibzucIjSP38ghLB7LLo1FzuRtk-Be1MQ84D/s1600/434760-09301902112007@600_series_power_steering_b.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5409471153941798850" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1026" style="height: 213.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 261pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
<v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t">
<v:imagedata o:title="434760-09301902112007%40600_series_power_steering_b" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image046.jpg">
</v:imagedata></v:fill></v:shape></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Courier New";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">Penyakit yang sering
menimpaperangkat power steering adalah masalah kebocoran yang mengakibatkan
minyak berkurang sehingga tekanan juga menurun dan membuat setir berat, jika
diputar paksa dan ditahan menimbulkan bunyi yang berdengung Komponen yang
paling sering mengalami kerusakan adalah sil, biasanya karena peranti ini
berumur lama. Tekanan yang terus-menerus membuat sil yang tua bakal robek.
Paling sering yang kena adalah sil steering rack, gejalanya setir terasa berat,
ada tetesan minyak di bagian bawah mesin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">Paling gampang dengan melihat
sekitar permukaan rack yang dipenuhi pelumas.Kalau dibiarkan bisa menular ke
komponen lain, karena cairannya lama-lama berkurang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";"><span> </span>Sebelum terlambat ganti yang baru. Jumlahnya 1
set ada 10 buah sil.Sil yang lain yang juga sering jebol adalah yang terdapat
pada pompa,gejalanya mirip, yaitu setir berat dan minyak sering habis. Cara
mudah<br />
mengetahuinya dengan melihat kondisi pompa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">Jika disekujur bodinya terdapat
minyak, berarti ada kebocoran.Kemudian slang, yaitu peranti penyalur cairan ini
jika tertekuk atau sudah getas bisa pecah, akibatnya isi minyak akan berkurang,
bisa juga disebabkan klem-klemannya sudah kendor. Dpat diketahui dengan melihat
ujungnyya,apakah dibasahi oleh minyak atau tidak. Khusus buat pengikat, gunakan
yang tidak melukai slang agar lebih aman. Jika kebocoran dicuekin saja bisa
merusak kipaspompa, karena tidak adanya minyak yang lewat se hingga ujung kipas
tergores. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Courier New";">Kalau masih tetap tidak
diperbaiki, akan meyebabkan dinding kipas baret pula.Kalau sudah seperti ini
tidak bisa direkondisikan lagi, harus ganti baru dan<br />
ongkosnya mahal, sekitar 1 jutaan. Penyakit akibat kurang cairan lainnya adalah
as steering rack baret karena tidak adanya pelumasan yang maksimal, dan bisa
membuat oli keluar. Cirinya, dengan melihat permukaan as dengan membuka karet
pelindungnya yang banyak rembesan pelumas. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">katup buluh<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: black;">Katup buluh</span><span style="color: black;"> adalah jenis </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_valve&usg=ALkJrhjile3-G6sOPlIVZcWDnFonsNqOPw" title="Check valve"><span style="color: black;">katup</span></a><span style="color: black;"> yang membatasi aliran cairan ke arah tunggal,
membuka dan menutup di bawah tekanan perubahan pada wajah masing-masing. Versi
modern sering terdiri dari logam fleksibel atau </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_materials&usg=ALkJrhiyLcoI5VZuaNlEc7HwXYpfct3Icw" title="Bahan komposit"><span style="color: black;">bahan
komposit</span></a><span style="color: black;"> ( </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberglass&usg=ALkJrhhW12LhObUJDGCtbSTvQxozffYPOg" title="Serat gelas"><span style="color: black;">fiberglass</span></a><span style="color: black;"> atau </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fiber&usg=ALkJrhhFiCVjb4OSkaqrsaJzltvJHRIPxw" title="Serat karbon"><span style="color: black;">serat
karbon</span></a><span style="color: black;"> ).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3>
<span class="mw-headline"><span style="color: black;">Dua-stroke
engine</span></span><span style="color: black;"> <o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="color: black;">Katup
buluh yang umum digunakan dalam performa tinggi versi dari </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-stroke&usg=ALkJrhha9DH4di78ZUknl1k7WKEyddf5vw" title="Dua-stroke"><span style="color: black;">dua-stroke</span></a><span style="color: black;"> mesin, di mana mereka mengontrol campuran
bahan bakar udara ke silinder mengakui. Seperti piston naik dalam silinder
vakum yang dibuat di </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankcase&usg=ALkJrhh-nfJ3SUbNJGTgdm4g0Nw0peaYIw" title="Bak mesin"><span style="color: black;">crankcase</span></a><span style="color: black;"> bawah piston. Vakum ini membuka katup
dan mengakui campuran bahan bakar udara ke dalam bak mesin. Seperti piston
turun, itu menimbulkan tekanan crankcase menyebabkan katup untuk menutup untuk
mempertahankan campuran dan menekan untuk mentransfer akhirnya melalui ke </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamber&usg=ALkJrhjGR_4ZVvDakouAFo_VMiRjmqsLLA" title="Ruang pembakaran"><span style="color: black;">ruang
pembakaran</span></a><span style="color: black;"> . <a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed_valve&usg=ALkJrhg0lZclZodhhP_n7f2iq8EvciVJEg#cite_note-0"><sup><span style="color: black;">[1]</span></sup></a> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_s1030" style="height: 107.55pt; margin-left: 137.85pt; margin-top: 253.7pt; position: absolute; visibility: visible; width: 144.1pt; z-index: -1;" type="#_x0000_t75" wrapcoords="-225 0 -225 21389 21585 21389 21585 0 -225 0">
<v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CAcer%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image047.png">
<w:wrap type="tight">
</w:wrap><span style="color: black;">Material komposit
lebih disukai dalam mesin balap, terutama di </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kart_racing&usg=ALkJrhj6lrR2UsGVXM0H7mi_DCIhx2WYlw" title="Kart balap"><span style="color: black;">kart balap</span></a><span style="color: black;"> , karena kekakuan dari kelopak dapat
dengan mudah disetel dan mereka relatif aman dalam kegagalan. Dampak kecepatan
tinggi mengambil tol pada semua katup buluh, dengan katup logam penderitaan
dalam </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_fatigue&usg=ALkJrhhAtS9hLoPjsBRxRwQ4zV6iO4mWvA" title="Logam kelelahan"><span style="color: black;">kelelahan</span></a><span style="color: black;"> . Inersia fisik katup buluh berarti
bahwa mereka tidak sepenuhnya tepat dalam tindakan seperti </span><a href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=id&langpair=en%7Cid&rurl=translate.google.co.id&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_valve&usg=ALkJrhiNs9d18xnrxxieklZBOmTev2kb1Q" title="Rotary valve"><span style="color: black;">katup
rotari</span></a><span style="color: black;"> , mesin rotari
katup dapat menjalankan lebih baik daripada mesin katup buluh pada rentang rpm
kecil tapi mesin katup buluh sering berjalan lebih baik selama rentang rpm yang
lebih luas . Desain yang lebih canggih sebagian alamat ini dengan menciptakan
multi-tahap alang-alang dengan lebih kecil, buluh lebih responsif dalam yang
lebih besar yang memberikan volume yang lebih kemudian dalam siklus. Namun
demikian, teknologi saat ini katup buluh nikmat hampir dengan mengesampingkan
katup putar karena kesederhanaan mereka dan biaya implementasi yang rendah. <o:p></o:p></span></v:imagedata></v:shape></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
(1). Katup buluh (2)<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span> </span>SUPER KIPS KAWASAKI</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: #333333; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
<br />
</span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://korekmesin.blogspot.com/2010/12/cara-ngecek-kerusakan-cdi.html"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">Super
Kips</span></a></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"> adalah
suatu system pemanfaatan katup yang mengatur penutupan dan pembukaan sebagian
dari lubang pembuangan, agar pembuangan gas dari sisa pembakaran pada
saat </span></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://korekmesin.blogspot.com/2010/12/setting-jarum-pelampung.html"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">RPM
tinggi</span></a></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"> dapat
berlangsung lebih sempurna (katup membuka), sebaliknya juga pada RPM rendah
akan menghindarkan terbuangnya campuran bensin-udara yang baru masuk ke ruang
bakar dari karter (katup menutup). Katup ini akan berfungsi membuka pada saa</span></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.shiriz-adv.com/"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">t RPM</span></a></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"> diatas </span></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/%20http:/heavenbali.blogspot.com/"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">7000</span></a></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"> hingga </span></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://korekmesin.blogspot.com/2010/12/ilmu-squish-pada-2-langkahtak.html"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">8500</span></a></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">. 0-7000 rpm : </span></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://www.shiriz-adv.com/"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">Katup KIPS </span></a></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">tertutup 7000-8500 rpm :</span></span><span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://korekmesin.blogspot.com/"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">Katup KIPS </span></a></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">terbuka</span></span><b><span style="color: black;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><a href="http://dewataspeedblog.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/super-kips.jpeg"><span lang="IN" style="color: blue; text-decoration: none;"><v:shape alt="http://dewataspeedblog.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/super-kips.jpeg?w=225&h=225" href="http://dewataspeedblog.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/super-kips.jpeg" id="Picture_x0020_4" o:button="t" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 168.75pt; visibility: visible; width: 168.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75">
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super kips pada
kawasaki</div>
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two stroke exhaus valve merupakan tenologi
katup pada lubang buang/exhaust yang diterapkan pada motor 2tak untuk
meraih power dari putaran bawah sampai putaran atas. selain itu untuk
meraih evisiensi dari motor 2 tak yang terkenal boros. pada mesin 2 tak hanya
terdapat sedikit bagia dari mesi yang bergerak, hanya seher,stang seher beserta
as-kruk, sehingga power yang dihasilkan sungguh luar biasa. dalam sekali
gerakan piston bergerak dari TMA ke TMB terjadi sekali ledakan, bandingkan
dengan mesin 4 tak, selain banyak part yang bergerak di 4 tak seher harus
2 x naik turun untuk mendapatkan 1 ledakkan.</div>
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<br /></div>piamesinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18003624321351276057noreply@blogger.com0